Definition of IQ : What is IQ? IQ (intelligence quotient) = (Mental Age / Chronological Age) x 100. The IQ of a child between the ages of 5 to 16 years old is calculated by dividing the child's mental age by his chronological age and then multiplying the result by 100. If a 10 year old child performs mentally at a 10 year old level, the IQ is calculated as 10 divided by 10 equaling 1, and multiplying the 1 by 100 equals an IQ of 100. If the 10 year old child mentally performs at a 20 year old level, then 20 over 10 equals 2, and multiplying 2 by 100 equals an IQ score of 200. Adult IQ is calculated by supervised IQ testing. Adult IQ scores are specific to each IQ test and are not interchangeable between one IQ test and another. Membership qualifications to most high IQ societies require percentile ratings instead of IQ scores. The IQ formula (MA/CA) x 100 = IQ was created as an indicator, not based on mathematical rules. The formula could have been (MA/CA)x10 or (MA/CA)x1000. IQ scores are relative numbers, of no real measurement other than to show relative differences of measurable mental performance between different people taking similar tests. by sandeep

             Definition of society

Definition of society noun (plural societies) 1 [mass noun] the aggregate of people living together in a more or less ordered community: drugs, crime, and other dangers to society the community of people living in a particular country or region and having shared customs, laws, and organizations: the ethnic diversity of British society [count noun]: modern industrial societies [with adjective] a specified section of society: no one in polite society uttered the word (also high society) the aggregate of people who are fashionable, wealthy, and influential, regarded as forming a distinct group in a community: [as modifier]: a society wedding [count noun] a plant or animal community: the analogy between insect society and human city is not new 2an organization or club formed for a particular purpose or activity: [in names]: the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds 3 [mass noun] the situation of being in the company of other people: she shunned the society of others

                   iq questions
The thing which comes Once in a year twice in a month 4 times in a week and 6 times in a day? answer Odd numbers. One year = 12 months the 1 is odd. Month = 4 weeks, 1, 2, 3, 4, 1 and 3 are odd. Week = 7 days, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 1,3,5,and 7 = 4. Day = 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11. = 6 Read more: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/The_thing_which_comes_Once_in_a_year_twice_in_a_month_4_times_in_a_week_and_6_times_in_a_day#ixzz2An8VCxbz

         FLOOD IN JHARKHAND
Ranchi, Sep 7 (IANS) A month after all the districts of Jharkhand were declared drought affected, many parts of the state are facing the threat of floods, an official said here Monday. Due to cyclonic depression formed over Jharkhand, the state has received more than 300 mm of rain in the last one week. Many rivers are overflowing. Many parts of state capital Ranchi are waterlogged and normal life has been disrupted. The incessant rains for last four days in Ranchi not only flooded many parts of the city but has also deprived people of electricity. Ranchi has been without electricity since Sunday. The affected districts include Ranchi, Jamshedpur, Bokaro and Ramgarh. Ramgarh district, which is around 45 km from Ranchi, is one of the worst affected. 'Nearly two-thirds of Ramgarh district is flooded. The water is flowing above six feet at famous Rajrappa temple of goddess Chinmastika. The temple was flooded after water started overflowing in Damodar river,' the official said. In Jamshedpur, two rivers Kharkai and Swarnarekha are also flowing above the danger mark. in Ramgarh district, the Patratu Thermal Power Plant Station (PTPS) opened five gates of its dams causing flooding of major parts of the district. The dam gates were opened early Monday. In Bokaro, gates of Tenughat Vidyut Nigam Limited (TVNL) dam gates were opened which flooded around 250 villages. Flooding has now affected nearly 500,000 people in the state. According to the weatherman, there will be more rainfall till Tuesday. 'The deep depression formed over Jharkhand is moving towards the north-west. Jharkhand can get relief on Tuesday,' said G.K. Mohanty, head of meteorological office of Ranchi.

The Importance of Societies How important is our society to us? Is it just something nice to have? Could we even do without it? Let's think about what proportion of the quality of life of a person depends on his own efforts and what part is due to his belonging to a society. At first sight it seems that nearly all is due to his own efforts. But if we imagine how we would live without the knowledge and the material things accumulated by the society in which we live, we would realize that we would live without electricity and water, because we have not invented the generation and use of electricity nor build water works. Previous members of our society have done this. There would be no tools, machines, and no books. All this has been created by previous generations; not by ourselves. We could not even make tools, for instance a pair of pliers; there would be no iron (released from the ore), nor tools or machines to work the iron with. Probably the greatest advantage for the IS, member of a society is having access to its accumulated knowledge. Since the life span of a society is so much greater than the life span of an individual IS, this accumulation is considerable. Another advantage is the possibility of cooperation, the division of labor. Each member learns only part of the accumulated knowledge. So he (or she) has to learn during less time and so can be productive for a greater portion of his life span. He works using the part of the total existing knowledge he has learned, and supplies the other members with the results of his work. The society facilitates this exchange by standardizing measures of time, weight, length, and so on, and issuing money. This allows each member to reach its objectives much easier than without a society; it permits to have a better standard of living. For instance most of us do not have the knowledge of an architect or the machines of a construction company. So we let them build our house instead of building it ourselves. Finally, within a society, by cooperation, the common defense is much easier. The society is very much stronger than individual members. We see, that it is of fundamental importance for human beings to belong to a society. Without our society we would be reduced to living like wild animals.

     PARAGRAPH ON SOCIETY  PARAGRAPH ON SOCIETY
The positions and roles that an individual occupies in a society as well as his place in the social stratification system determines his social environment. It largely determines the people he is likely to interact with and at times even severely restricts social intercourse. To a very large extent, every individual is a product of the culture he lives in. the peculiar ways of his culture, norms, values and customs are called ‘socialization process’. Socialization aims at preparing the members of society in effectively adapting to their cultural and physical environment. Socialization begins very early in life, even before the child acquires the capacity to speak. However, as the child grows, his social environment begins to widen beyond his family. Also, with age, his social roles keep changing rapidly. But practically by 20-25 years of age, an individual has learnt most of the important things ended to survive in the given cultural and physical environment

           planet on universe
Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun and the smallest in our Solar system. With an average distance of 58 million kilometres from the Sun, Mercury orbits around it in 88 Earth days. Venus is the second planet from the Sun and is sometimes known as the Earth's "twin", because the two planets are so similar in size. The diameter of Venus is about 12,100 kilometres, approximately 644 kilometres smaller than that of the Earth. With an average distance of 108 million kilometres from the Sun, Mercury orbits around it in 225 Earth days. Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the place we all call home. With an average distance of 150 million kilometres from the Sun, Earth orbits around it in 365.25 days. Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and one of Earth’s next door neighbours in space. With an average distance of 228 million kilometres from the Sun, Mars orbits around it in 687 Earth days. Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and is the largest planet in our Solar system. About 11 times wider than Earth, Jupiter has a diameter of 142,984 kilometres. With an average distance of 778 million kilometres from the Sun, Jupiter orbits around it in 11.86 Earth years. Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and is the second largest planet in our Solar system. Saturn has seven thin, flat rings around it that are made up of ice particles travelling around the planet. With an average distance of 1.42 billion kilometres from the Sun, Saturn orbits around it in 22.46 Earth years. Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun. It is the farthest planet that can be seen without a telescope. With an average distance of 2.87 billion kilometres from the Sun, Uranus orbits around it in 84 Earth years. Neptune is the eighth planet from the Sun. It is the only planet in our system that cannot be seen without a telescope (excluding Pluto). With an average distance of 4.49 billion kilometres from the Sun, Neptune orbits around it in 165 Earth years.

                 MATHS &MIME
In "Envisioning the Invisible", Tim Chartier describes how the performing arts can be used to capture mathematical concepts in a visceral way that audiences can really connect with. Chartier is a mathematician and also a mime; he trained with the legendary Marcel Marceau. In one of Chartier's mime sketches, he gets the audience to visualize the one-dimensional number line as a rope of infinite length. The sketch begins with the lone mime walking toward the audience and suddenly stumbling. Peering down, he sees an (invisible) object on the floor and proceeds to slowly pick it up. Examining it, he discovers a rope of infinite length in both directions. He then engages in a tug-of-war with the rope and eventually cuts it into two, prompting the audience to ponder questions about the nature of infinity. In addition to describing several such mime pieces he performs (some of them together with his wife, who is also a trained mime), Chartier discusses the work of other mathematicians who work in such performing arts as dance, theater, juggling, and magic. Read more at: http://phys.org/news179471337.html#jCp

          SHADY PLOT SUMMARY
SHADY PLOT It is a story of an ordinary man who is an accountant. The writer is urged by his friend to write a new ghost story for his magazine. When he begins to write, a she-ghost, Helen, descends and tells him that she was also an author in her life, and tells him that she and her fellow ghosts was the one who gave him ideas when he was thinking for ideas, Helen says she would help him in providing ideas on one condition that he should make his friends and relatives stop using the Ouija board, coz all the ghosts were fed up of human beings calling them time after time, so they are on a strike, coz he is unable to help him unless the strike is over, if he succeeds in doing so surely she will provide him ideas, and then lavinia, John 's wife (lavinia) enters the room and announces that she has brought a Ouija board in auction. John was very shocked to see this., and one day he when he was coming from office he found that his wife was conducting Ouija board party. Everyone was in pair. Only one girl was left alone. So John was asked to accompany her by his wife. John hesitates but he continues, but as the play begins the word refers john as traitor, everyone is shocked and when a women (Mrs. Hinkle) further asks then it appears that a women named Helen is calling for him, everyone assumes the John had a secret relationship with a girl named Helen, and next day, when john gets up he couldn’t find his wife, she had left a note that she is going to her grandmother 's house and rest of the things will be discussed by lawyer, at this point john wishes that he was dead, and then the ghost reappears and tells john that his wife must get rid of the Ouija board. As he is trying to argue with the ghost, that she was responsible of all this that happened, john’s wife comes in, john thought his wife would faint if she sees the ghost, But nothing so happened in fact she had a wide smile on seeing her. And then Helen tells that she is not the Helen of Troy, but another Helen, an ordinary woman of New York ( now dead ), The ghost departed, Lavinia forgives her husband and promises to get rid of the Ouija board which makes everyone happy- the ghost of Helen, the maid, and, of course, the author. And hence john is provided by the idea of writing a story which had actually happened with him, hence the condition is also satisfied and everyone is happy. P

                     about science   
scientists, see Natural science. For other uses, see Science (disambiguation). Montage of some highly influential scientists from a variety of scientific fields. From left to right: Top row - Archimedes, Aristotle, Ibn al-Haytham, Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo Galilei, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek; Second row - Isaac Newton, James Hutton, Antoine Lavoisier, John Dalton, Charles Darwin, Gregor Mendel; Third row - Louis Pasteur, James Clerk Maxwell, Henri Poincaré, Sigmund Freud, Nikola Tesla, Max Planck; Fourth row - Ernest Rutherford, Marie Curie, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr, Erwin Schrödinger, Enrico Fermi; Bottom row - J. Robert Oppenheimer, Alan Turing, Richard Feynman, E. O. Wilson, Jane Goodall, Stephen Hawking Part of a series on Science Formal sciences[show] Physical sciences[show] Life sciences[show] Social and behavioural sciences[show] Applied sciences[show] Interdisciplinarity[show] Philosophy and history of science[show] Science portal Category v t e Science (from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.[1] In an older and closely related meaning (found, for example, in Aristotle), "science" refers to the body of reliable knowledge itself, of the type that can be logically and rationally explained (see History and philosophy below).[2] Since classical antiquity science as a type of knowledge was closely linked to philosophy. In the early modern era the words "science" and "philosophy" were sometimes used interchangeably in the English language. By the 17th century, natural philosophy (which is today called "natural science") was considered a separate branch of philosophy.[3] However, "science" continued to be used in a broad sense denoting reliable knowledge about a topic, in the same way it is still used in modern terms such as library science or political science. In modern use, "science" more often refers to a way of pursuing knowledge, not only the knowledge itself. It is "often treated as synonymous with 'natural and physical science', and thus restricted to those branches of study that relate to the phenomena of the material universe and their laws, sometimes with implied exclusion of pure mathematics. This is now the dominant sense in ordinary use."[4] This narrower sense of "science" developed as scientists such as Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton began formulating laws of nature such as Newton's laws of motion. In this period it became more common to refer to natural philosophy as "natural science". Over the course of the 19th century, the word "science" became increasingly associated with scientific method, a disciplined way to study the natural world, including physics, chemistry, geology and biology. It is in the 19th century also that the term scientist was created by the naturalist-theologian William Whewell to distinguish those who sought knowledge on nature from those who sought knowledge on other disciplines. The Oxford English Dictionary dates the origin of the word "scientist" to 1834. This sometimes left the study of human thought and society in a linguistic limbo, which was resolved by classifying these areas of academic study as social science. Similarly, several other major areas of disciplined study and knowledge exist today under the general rubric of "science", such as formal science and applied science. Contents [show] History and philosophy History Main article: History of science Both Aristotle and Kuan Tzu (4th C. BCE), in an example of simultaneous scientific discovery, mention that some marine animals were subject to a lunar cycle, and increase and decrease in size with the waxing and waning of the moon. Aristotle was referring specifically to the sea urchin, pictured above.[5] Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era, and in many historical civilizations, but modern science is so distinct in its approach and successful in its results that it now defines what science is in the strictest sense of the term. Much earlier than the modern era, another important turning point was the development of the classical natural philosophy in the ancient Greek-speaking world. Pre-philosophical Science in its original sense is a word for a type of knowledge (Latin scientia, Ancient Greek epistemē), rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular it is one of the types of knowledge which people can communicate to each other and share. For example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thinking, as shown by the construction of complex calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible, and buildings such as the pyramids. However no consistent distinction was made between knowledge of such things which are true in every community, and other types of communal knowledge such as mythologies and legal systems. Philosophical study of nature See also: Nature (philosophy) Before the invention or discovery of the concept of "nature" (Ancient Greek phusis), by the Pre-Socratic philosophers, the same words tend to be used to describe the natural "way" in which a plant grows,[6] and the "way" in which, for example, one tribe worships a particular god. For this reason it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense, and also the first people to clearly distinguish "nature" and "convention".[7] Science was therefore distinguished as the knowledge of nature, and the things which are true for every community, and the name of the specialized pursuit of such knowledge was philosophy — the realm of the first philosopher-physicists. They were mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature (artifice or technology, Greek technē) was seen by classical scientists as a more appropriate interest for lower class artisans.[8] Philosophical turn to human things A major turning point in the history of early philosophical science was the controversial but successful attempt by Socrates to apply philosophy to the study of human things, including human nature, the nature of political communities, and human knowledge itself. He criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative, and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly concerned that some of the early physicists treated nature as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and matter. The study of human things had been the realm of mythology and tradition, and Socrates was executed. Aristotle later created a less controversial systematic programme of Socratic philosophy, which was teleological, and human-centred. He rejected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For example in his physics the sun goes around the earth, and many things have it as part of their nature that they are for humans. Each thing has a formal cause and final cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, according to what types of things they are. While the Socratics insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being, they did not argue for any other types of applied science. Aristotle maintained the sharp distinction between science and the practical knowledge of artisans, treating theoretical speculation as the highest type of human activity, practical thinking about good living as something less lofty, and the knowledge of artisans as something only suitable for the lower classes. In contrast to modern science, Aristotle's influential emphasis was upon the "theoretical" steps of deducing universal rules from raw data, and did not treat the gathering of experience and raw data as part of science itself.[9] Medieval science During late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the Aristotelian approach to inquiries on natural phenomenon was used. Some ancient knowledge was lost, or in some cases kept in obscurity, during the fall of the Roman Empire and periodic political struggles. However, the general fields of science, or Natural Philosophy as it was called, and much of the general knowledge from the ancient world remained preserved though the works of the early encyclopedists like Isidore of Seville. During the early medieval period, Syrian Christians from Eastern Europe such as Nestorians and Monophysites were the ones that translated much of the important Greek science texts from Greek to Syriac and the later on they translated many of the works into Arabic and other languages under Islamic rule.[10] This was a major line of transmission for the development of Islamic science which provided much of the activity during the early medieval period. In the later medieval period, Europeans recovered some ancient knowledge by translations of texts and they built their work upon the knowledge of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Euclid, and others works. In Europe, men like Roger Bacon learned Arabic and Hebrew and argued for more experimental science. By the late Middle Ages, a synthesis of Catholicism and Aristotelianism known as Scholasticism was flourishing in Western Europe, which had become a new geographic center of science. Renaissance, and early modern science Main article: Scientific revolution Galileo is considered one of the fathers of modern science.[11] By the late Middle Ages, especially in Italy there was an influx of texts and scholars from the collapsing Byzantine empire. Copernicus formulated a heliocentric model of the solar system unlike the geocentric model of Ptolemy's Almagest. All aspects of scholasticism were criticized in the 15th and 16th centuries; one author who was notoriously persecuted was Galileo, who made innovative use of experiment and mathematics. However the persecution began after Pope Urban VIII blessed Galileo to write about the Copernican system. Galileo had used arguments from the Pope and put them in the voice of the simpleton in the work "Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems" which caused great offense to him.[12] In Northern Europe, the new technology of the printing press was widely used to publish many arguments including some that disagreed with church dogma. René Descartes and Francis Bacon published philosophical arguments in favor of a new type of non-Aristotelian science. Descartes argued that mathematics could be used in order to study nature, as Galileo had done, and Bacon emphasized the importance of experiment over contemplation. Bacon also argued that science should aim for the first time at practical inventions for the improvement of all human life. Bacon questioned the Aristotelian concepts of formal cause and final cause, and promoted the idea that science should study the laws of "simple" natures, such as heat, rather than assuming that there is any specific nature, or "formal cause", of each complex type of thing. This new modern science began to see itself as describing "laws of nature". This updated approach to studies in nature was seen as mechanistic. Age of Enlightenment In the 17th and 18th centuries, the project of modernity, as had been promoted by Bacon and Descartes, led to rapid scientific advance and the successful development of a new type of natural science, mathematical, methodically experimental, and deliberately innovative. Newton and Leibniz succeeded in developing a new physics, now referred to as Newtonian physics, which could be confirmed by experiment and explained in mathematics. Leibniz also incorporated terms from Aristotelian physics, but now being used in a new non-teleological way, for example "energy" and "potential". But in the style of Bacon, he assumed that different types of things all work according to the same general laws of nature, with no special formal or final causes for each type of thing. It is, during this period that the word science gradually became more commonly used to refer to the pursuit of a type of knowledge, and especially knowledge of nature — coming close in meaning to the old term "natural philosophy". 19th century Distinguished Men of Science.[13] Use a cursor to see who is who.[14] Both John Herschel and William Whewell systematised methodology: the latter coined the term scientist. When Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species he established descent with modification as the prevailing evolutionary explanation of biological complexity. His theory of natural selection provided a natural explanation of how species originated, but this only gained wide acceptance a century later. John Dalton developed the idea of atoms. The laws of Thermodynamics and the electromagnetic theory were also established in the 19th century, which raised new questions which could not easily be answered using Newton's framework. 20th century Einstein's Theory of Relativity and the development of quantum mechanics led to the replacement of Newtonian physics with a new physics which contains two parts, that describe different types of events in nature. The extensive use of scientific innovation during the wars of this century, led to the space race and widespread public appreciation of the importance of modern science. Philosophy of science Main article: Philosophy of science Further information: Intersubjective verifiability and Subjunctive possibility Working scientists usually take for granted a set of basic assumptions that are needed to justify a scientific method: (1) that there is an objective reality shared by all rational observers; (2) that this objective reality is governed by natural laws; (3) that these laws can be discovered by means of systematic observation and experimentation. Philosophy of science seeks a deep understanding of what these underlying assumptions mean and whether they are valid. Most contributions to the philosophy of science have come from philosophers, who frequently view the beliefs of most scientists as superficial or naive—thus there is often a degree of antagonism between working scientists and philosophers of science. John Locke The belief that all observers share a common reality is known as realism. It can be contrasted with anti-realism, the belief that there is no valid concept of absolute truth such that things that are true for one observer are true for all observers. The most commonly defended form of anti-realism is idealism, the belief that the mind or spirit is the most basic essence, and that each mind generates its own reality.[15] In an idealistic world-view, what is true for one mind need not be true for other minds. There are different schools of thought in philosophy of science. The most popular position is empiricism, which claims that knowledge is created by a process involving observation and that scientific theories are the result of generalizations from such observations.[16] Empiricism generally encompasses inductivism, a position that tries to explain the way general theories can be justified by the finite number of observations humans can make and the hence finite amount of empirical evidence available to confirm scientific theories. This is necessary because the number of predictions those theories make is infinite, which means that they cannot be known from the finite amount of evidence using deductive logic only. Many versions of empiricism exist, with the predominant ones being bayesianism[17] and the hypothetico-deductive method.[18] Empiricism has stood in contrast to rationalism, the position originally associated with Descartes, which holds that knowledge is created by the human intellect, not by observation.[19] A significant twentieth century version of rationalism is critical rationalism, first defined by Austrian-British philosopher Karl Popper. Popper rejected the way that empiricism describes the connection between theory and observation. He claimed that theories are not generated by observation, but that observation is made in the light of theories and that the only way a theory can be affected by observation is when it comes in conflict with it.[20] Popper proposed falsifiability as the landmark of scientific theories, and falsification as the empirical method, to replace verifiability[21] and induction by purely deductive notions.[22] Popper further claimed that there is actually only one universal method, and that this method is not specific to science: The negative method of criticism, trial and error.[23] It covers all products of the human mind, including science, mathematics, philosophy, and art [24] Another approach, instrumentalism, colloquially termed "shut up and calculate", emphasizes the utility of theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena.[25] It claims that scientific theories are black boxes with only their input (initial conditions) and output (predictions) being relevant. Consequences, notions and logical structure of the theories are claimed to be something that should simply be ignored and that scientists shouldn't make a fuss about (see interpretations of quantum mechanics). Finally, another approach often cited in debates of scientific skepticism against controversial movements like "scientific creationism", is methodological naturalism. Its main point is that a difference between natural and supernatural explanations should be made, and that science should be restricted methodologically to natural explanations.[26] That the restriction is merely methodological (rather than ontological) means that science should not consider supernatural explanations itself, but should not claim them to be wrong either. Instead, supernatural explanations should be left a matter of personal belief outside the scope of science. Methodological naturalism maintains that proper science requires strict adherence to empirical study and independent verification as a process for properly developing and evaluating explanations for observable phenomena.[27] The absence of these standards, arguments from authority, biased observational studies and other common fallacies are frequently cited by supporters of methodological naturalism as criteria for the dubious claims they criticize not to be true science. Basic and applied research Although some scientific research is applied research into specific problems, a great deal of our understanding comes from the curiosity-driven undertaking of basic research. This leads to options for technological advance that were not planned or sometimes even imaginable. This point was made by Michael Faraday when, allegedly in response to the question "what is the use of basic research?" he responded "Sir, what is the use of a new-born child?".[28] For example, research into the effects of red light on the human eye's rod cells did not seem to have any practical purpose; eventually, the discovery that our night vision is not troubled by red light would lead search and rescue teams (among others) to adopt red light in the cockpits of jets and helicopters.[29] In a nutshell: Basic research is the search for knowledge. Applied research is the search for solutions to practical problems using this knowledge. Finally, even basic research can take unexpected turns, and there is some sense in which the scientific method is built to harness luck. Experimentation and hypothesizing DNA determines the genetic structure of all known life Based on observations of a phenomenon, scientists may generate a model. This is an attempt to describe or depict the phenomenon in terms of a logical, physical or mathematical representation. As empirical evidence is gathered, scientists can suggest a hypothesis to explain the phenomenon.[30] Hypotheses may be formulated using principles such as parsimony (also known as "Occam's Razor") and are generally expected to seek consilience—fitting well with other accepted facts related to the phenomena.[31] This new explanation is used to make falsifiable predictions that are testable by experiment or observation. When a hypothesis proves unsatisfactory, it is either modified or discarded.[32] Experimentation is especially important in science to help establish causational relationships (to avoid the correlation fallacy). Operationalization also plays an important role in coordinating research in/across different fields. Once a hypothesis has survived testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a scientific theory. This is a logically reasoned, self-consistent model or framework for describing the behavior of certain natural phenomena. A theory typically describes the behavior of much broader sets of phenomena than a hypothesis; commonly, a large number of hypotheses can be logically bound together by a single theory. Thus a theory is a hypothesis explaining various other hypotheses. In that vein, theories are formulated according to most of the same scientific principles as hypotheses. While performing experiments, scientists may have a preference for one outcome over another, and so it is important to ensure that science as a whole can eliminate this bias.[33][34] This can be achieved by careful experimental design, transparency, and a thorough peer review process of the experimental results as well as any conclusions.[35][36] After the results of an experiment are announced or published, it is normal practice for independent researchers to double-check how the research was performed, and to follow up by performing similar experiments to determine how dependable the results might be.[37] Certainty and science A scientific theory is empirical, and is always open to falsification if new evidence is presented. That is, no theory is ever considered strictly certain as science accepts the concept of fallibilism. The philosopher of science Karl Popper sharply distinguishes truth from certainty. He writes that scientific knowledge "consists in the search for truth", but it "is not the search for certainty ... All human knowledge is fallible and therefore uncertain."[38] Although science values legitimate doubt, The Flat Earth Society is still widely regarded as an example of taking skepticism too far New scientific knowledge very rarely results in vast changes in our understanding. According to psychologist Keith Stanovich, it may be the media's overuse of words like "breakthrough" that leads the public to imagine that science is constantly proving everything it thought was true to be false.[39] While there are such famous cases as the theory of relativity that required a complete reconceptualization, these are extreme exceptions. Knowledge in science is gained by a gradual synthesis of information from different experiments, by various researchers, across different domains of science; it is more like a climb than a leap.[40] Theories vary in the extent to which they have been tested and verified, as well as their acceptance in the scientific community.[41] For example, heliocentric theory, the theory of evolution, and germ theory still bear the name "theory" even though, in practice, they are considered factual.[42] Philosopher Barry Stroud adds that, although the best definition for "knowledge" is contested, being skeptical and entertaining the possibility that one is incorrect is compatible with being correct. Ironically then, the scientist adhering to proper scientific method will doubt themselves even once they possess the truth.[43] The fallibilist C. S. Peirce argued that inquiry is the struggle to resolve actual doubt and that merely quarrelsome, verbal, or hyperbolic doubt is fruitless[44]—but also that the inquirer should try to attain genuine doubt rather than resting uncritically on common sense.[45] He held that the successful sciences trust, not to any single chain of inference (no stronger than its weakest link), but to the cable of multiple and various arguments intimately connected.[46] Stanovich also asserts that science avoids searching for a "magic bullet"; it avoids the single-cause fallacy. This means a scientist would not ask merely "What is the cause of...", but rather "What are the most significant causes of...". This is especially the case in the more macroscopic fields of science (e.g. psychology, cosmology).[47] Of course, research often analyzes few factors at once, but these are always added to the long list of factors that are most important to consider.[47] For example: knowing the details of only a person's genetics, or their history and upbringing, or the current situation may not explain a behaviour, but a deep understanding of all these variables combined can be very predictive. Scientific practice Astronomy became much more accurate after Tycho Brahe devised his scientific instruments for measuring angles between two celestial bodies, before the invention of the telescope. Brahe's observations were the basis for Kepler's laws. "If a man will begin with certainties, he shall end in doubts; but if he will be content to begin with doubts, he shall end in certainties." —Francis Bacon (1605) The Advancement of Learning, Book 1, v, 8 A skeptical point of view, demanding a method of proof, was the practical position taken as early as 1000 years ago, with Alhazen, Doubts Concerning Ptolemy, through Bacon (1605), and C. S. Peirce (1839–1914), who note that a community will then spring up to address these points of uncertainty. The methods of inquiry into a problem have been known for thousands of years,[48] and extend beyond theory to practice. The use of measurements, for example, are a practical approach to settle disputes in the community. John Ziman points out that intersubjective pattern recognition is fundamental to the creation of all scientific knowledge.[49] Ziman shows how scientists can identify patterns to each other across centuries: Needham 1954 (illustration facing page 164) shows how today's trained Western botanist can identify Artemisia alba from images taken from a 16th c. Chinese pharmacopia,[50] and Ziman refers to this ability as 'perceptual consensibility'.[51] Ziman then makes consensibility, leading to consensus, the touchstone of reliable knowledge.[52] Measurement Main article: Measurement Measurement is often used in science to make definitive comparisons and reduce confusion. Even in cases of clear qualitative difference, increased precision through measurement is often preferred in order to aid in replication. For example, different colors may be reported based on wavelengths of light, instead of vague (qualitative) terms such as "green" and "blue" which are often interpreted differently by different people. Measurements are most commonly made in the SI system, which contains seven fundamental units: kilogram, meter, candela, second, ampere, kelvin, and mole. Six of these units are artifact-free (defined without reference to a particular physical object which serves as a standard); the definition of one remaining unit, the kilogram is still embodied in an artifact which rests at the BIPM outside Paris. Eventually, it is hoped that new SI definitions will be uniformly artifact-free. Artifact-free definitions fix measurements at an exact value related to a physical constant or other invariable phenomenon in nature, in contrast to standard artifacts which can be damaged or otherwise change slowly over time. Instead, the measurement unit can only ever change through increased accuracy in determining the value of the constant it is tied to. The seven base units in the SI system. Arrows point from units to those that depend on them; as the accuracy of the former increase, so will the accuracy of the latter. The first proposal to tie an SI base unit to an experimental standard independent of fiat was by Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914),[53] who proposed to define the meter in terms of the wavelength of a spectral line.[54] This directly influenced the Michelson-Morley experiment; Michelson and Morley cite Peirce, and improve on his method.[55] SI definitions See also: New SI definitions Base quantity Base unit Symbol Current SI constants New SI constants (proposed) time second s hyperfine splitting in Cesium-133 same as current SI length meter m speed of light in vacuum, c same as current SI mass kilogram kg mass of International Prototype Kilogram (IPK) Planck's constant, h electric current ampere A permeability of free space, permittivity of free space charge of the electron, e temperature kelvin K triple point of water, absolute zero Boltzmann's constant, k amount of substance mole mol molar mass of Carbon-12 Avogadro constant NA luminous intensity candela cd luminous efficacy of a 540 THz source same as current SI [56] Mathematics and formal sciences Main article: Mathematics Data from the famous Michelson–Morley experiment Mathematics is essential to the sciences. One important function of mathematics in science is the role it plays in the expression of scientific models. Observing and collecting measurements, as well as hypothesizing and predicting, often require extensive use of mathematics. Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry and calculus, for example, are all essential to physics. Virtually every branch of mathematics has applications in science, including "pure" areas such as number theory and topology. Statistical methods, which are mathematical techniques for summarizing and analyzing data, allow scientists to assess the level of reliability and the range of variation in experimental results. Statistical analysis plays a fundamental role in many areas of both the natural sciences and social sciences. Computational science applies computing power to simulate real-world situations, enabling a better understanding of scientific problems than formal mathematics alone can achieve. According to the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, computation is now as important as theory and experiment in advancing scientific knowledge.[57] Whether mathematics itself is properly classified as science has been a matter of some debate. Some thinkers see mathematicians as scientists, regarding physical experiments as inessential or mathematical proofs as equivalent to experiments. Others do not see mathematics as a science, since it does not require an experimental test of its theories and hypotheses. Mathematical theorems and formulas are obtained by logical derivations which presume axiomatic systems, rather than the combination of empirical observation and logical reasoning that has come to be known as scientific method. In general, mathematics is classified as formal science, while natural and social sciences are classified as empirical sciences.[58] Scientific method Main article: Scientific method A scientific method seeks to explain the events of nature in a reproducible way.[59] An explanatory thought experiment or hypothesis is put forward, as explanation, from which stem predictions. The predictions are to be posted before a confirming experiment or observation is sought, as proof that no tampering has occurred. Disproof of a prediction is evidence of progress.[60][61] This is done partly through observation of natural phenomena, but also through experimentation, that tries to simulate natural events under controlled conditions, as appropriate to the discipline (in the observational sciences, such as astronomy or geology, a predicted observation might take the place of a controlled experiment). Taken in its entirety, a scientific method allows for highly creative problem solving while minimizing any effects of subjective bias on the part of its users (namely the confirmation bias).[62] In the nineteenth century, the measurement of Earth's gravity was primarily dependent on pendulums for gravimetric surveys. An improved pendulum, designed by Friedrich Bessel, was manufactured by Repsold and Sons, Hamburg, Germany. The American C.S. Peirce was tasked with gravimetric research by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Peirce developed a theory of the systematic errors in the mount of the Repsold pendulum. He was asked to present his theory for improving pendulums to a Special Committee of the International Geodetic Association. While underway to a conference of the IGA in Europe, September 1877, Peirce wrote an essay in French on scientific method, "How to Make Our Ideas Clear"[63] and translated "The Fixation of Belief"[64] into French.[65] In these essays, he notes that our beliefs clash with real life, causing what Peirce denotes as the "irritation of doubt", for which he then lists multiple methods of coping, among them, scientific method.[66] "Model-making, the imaginative and logical steps which precede the experiment, may be judged the most important part of scientific method because skill and insight in these matters are rare. Without them we do not know what experiment to do. But it is the experiment which provides the raw material for scientific theory. Scientific theory cannot be built directly from the conclusions of conceptual models." —Herbert George Andrewartha (1907-92), Australian zoologist and entomologist, Introduction to the study of animal population 1961, 181[67] 

                                        QUANTAM THEORY
 In 1900 Max Planck, attempting to explain black body radiation suggested that although light was a wave, these waves could gain or lose energy only in finite amounts related to their frequency. Planck called these "lumps" of light energy "quanta" (from a Latin word for "how much." In 1905, Albert Einstein used the idea of light quanta to explain the photoelectric effect, and suggested that these light quanta had a "real" existence. In 1923 Arthur Holly Compton showed that the wavelength shift seen when low intensity X-rays scattered from electrons (so called Compton scattering) could be explained by a particle-theory of X-rays, but not a wave theory. In 1926 Gilbert N. Lewis named these liqht quanta particles photons. Eventually the modern theory of quantum quantum mechanics came to picture light as (in some sense) both a particle and a wave, and (in another sense), as a phenomenon which is neither a particle or a wave (which actually are macroscopic phenomena, such as baseballs or ocean waves). Instead, modern physics sees light as something that can be described sometimes with mathematics appropriate to one type of macroscopic metaphor (particles), and sometimes another macroscopic metaphor (water waves), but is actually something that cannot be fully imagined. As in the case for radio waves and the X-rays involved in Compton scattering, physicists have noted that electromagnetic radiation tends to behave more like a classical wave at lower frequencies, but more like a classical particle at higher frequencies, but never completely loses all qualities of one or the other. Visible light, which occupies a middle ground in frequency, can easily be shown in experiments to be describable using either a wave or particle model, or sometimes both.

                                                 LIGHT PREASURE
Light exerts physical pressure on objects in its path, a phenomenon which can be deduced by Maxwell's equations, but can be more easily explained by the particle nature of light: photons strike and transfer their momentum. Light pressure is equal to the power of the light beam divided by c, the speed of light. Due to the magnitude of c, the effect of light pressure is negligible for everyday objects. For example, a one-milliwatt laser pointer exerts a force of about 3.3 piconewtons on the object being illuminated; thus, one could lift a U. S. penny with laser pointers, but doing so would require about 30 billion 1-mW laser pointers.[8] However, in nanometer-scale applications such as NEMS, the effect of light pressure is more significant, and exploiting light pressure to drive NEMS mechanisms and to flip nanometer-scale physical switches in integrated circuits is an active area of research.[9] At larger scales, light pressure can cause asteroids to spin faster,[10] acting on their irregular shapes as on the vanes of a windmill. The possibility to make solar sails that would accelerate spaceships in space is also under investigation.[11][12] Although the motion of the Crookes radiometer was originally attributed to light pressure, this interpretation is incorrect; the characteristic Crookes rotation is the result of a partial vacuum.[13] This should not be confused with the Nichols radiometer, in which the (slight) motion caused by torque (though not enough for full rotation against friction) is directly caused by light pressure.

                                                  LIGHT SOURCES
There are many sources of light. The most common light sources are thermal: a body at a given temperature emits a characteristic spectrum of black-body radiation. A simple thermal source is sunlight, the radiation emitted by the chromosphere of the Sun at around 6,000 Kelvin peaks in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum when plotted in wavelength units [6] and roughly 44% of sunlight energy that reaches the ground is visible.[7] Another example is incandescent light bulbs, which emit only around 10% of their energy as visible light and the remainder as infrared. A common thermal light source in history is the glowing solid particles in flames, but these also emit most of their radiation in the infrared, and only a fraction in the visible spectrum. The peak of the blackbody spectrum is in the deep infrared, at about 10 micrometer wavelength, for relatively cool objects like human beings. As the temperature increases, the peak shifts to shorter wavelengths, producing first a red glow, then a white one, and finally a blue-white colour as the peak moves out of the visible part of the spectrum and into the ultraviolet. These colours can be seen when metal is heated to "red hot" or "white hot". Blue-white thermal emission is not often seen, except in stars (the commonly seen pure-blue colour in a gas flame or a welder's torch is in fact due to molecular emission, notably by CH radicals (emitting a wavelength band around 425 nm, and is not seen in stars or pure thermal radiation)). Atoms emit and absorb light at characteristic energies. This produces "emission lines" in the spectrum of each atom. Emission can be spontaneous, as in light-emitting diodes, gas discharge lamps (such as neon lamps and neon signs, mercury-vapor lamps, etc.), and flames (light from the hot gas itself—so, for example, sodium in a gas flame emits characteristic yellow light). Emission can also be stimulated, as in a laser or a microwave maser. Deceleration of a free charged particle, such as an electron, can produce visible radiation: cyclotron radiation, synchrotron radiation, and bremsstrahlung radiation are all examples of this. Particles moving through a medium faster than the speed of light in that medium can produce visible Cherenkov radiation. Certain chemicals produce visible radiation by chemoluminescence. In living things, this process is called bioluminescence. For example, fireflies produce light by this means, and boats moving through water can disturb plankton which produce a glowing wake. Certain substances produce light when they are illuminated by more energetic radiation, a process known as fluorescence. Some substances emit light slowly after excitation by more energetic radiation. This is known as phosphorescence. Phosphorescent materials can also be excited by bombarding them with subatomic particles. Cathodoluminescence is one example. This mechanism is used in cathode ray tube television sets and computer monitors. A city illuminated by artificial lighting Certain other mechanisms can produce light: Bioluminescence Cherenkov radiation Electroluminescence Scintillation

                                                         SPEED OF VISIBLE LIGHT
The speed of light in a vacuum is defined to be exactly 299,792,458 m/s (approximately 186,282 miles per second). The fixed value of the speed of light in SI units results from the fact that the metre is now defined in terms of the speed of light. All forms of electromagnetic radiation are believed to move at exactly this same speed in vacuum. Different physicists have attempted to measure the speed of light throughout history. Galileo attempted to measure the speed of light in the seventeenth century. An early experiment to measure the speed of light was conducted by Ole Rømer, a Danish physicist, in 1676. Using a telescope, Rømer observed the motions of Jupiter and one of its moons, Io. Noting discrepancies in the apparent period of Io's orbit, he calculated that light takes about 22 minutes to traverse the diameter of Earth's orbit.[4] However, its size was not known at that time. If Rømer had known the diameter of the Earth's orbit, he would have calculated a speed of 227,000,000 m/s. Another, more accurate, measurement of the speed of light was performed in Europe by Hippolyte Fizeau in 1849. Fizeau directed a beam of light at a mirror several kilometers away. A rotating cog wheel was placed in the path of the light beam as it traveled from the source, to the mirror and then returned to its origin. Fizeau found that at a certain rate of rotation, the beam would pass through one gap in the wheel on the way out and the next gap on the way back. Knowing the distance to the mirror, the number of teeth on the wheel, and the rate of rotation, Fizeau was able to calculate the speed of light as 313,000,000 m/s. Léon Foucault used an experiment which used rotating mirrors to obtain a value of 298,000,000 m/s in 1862. Albert A. Michelson conducted experiments on the speed of light from 1877 until his death in 1931. He refined Foucault's methods in 1926 using improved rotating mirrors to measure the time it took light to make a round trip from Mt. Wilson to Mt. San Antonio in California. The precise measurements yielded a speed of 299,796,000 m/s. The effective velocity of light in various transparent substances containing ordinary matter, is less than in vacuum. For example the speed of light in water is about 3/4 of that in vacuum. However, the slowing process in matter is thought to result not from actual slowing of particles of light, but rather from their absorption and re-emission from charged particles in matter. As an extreme example of the nature of light-slowing in matter, two independent teams of physicists were able to bring light to a "complete standstill" by passing it through a Bose-Einstein Condensate of the element rubidium, one team at Harvard University and the Rowland Institute for Science in Cambridge, Mass., and the other at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, also in Cambridge.[5] However, the popular description of light being "stopped" in these experiments refers only to light being stored in the excited states of atoms, then re-emitted at an arbitrary later time, as stimulated by a second laser pulse. During the time it had "stopped" it had ceased to be light.

                                             OTHER FORMS OF CARBON
Chaoite is a mineral believed to have been formed in meteorite impacts. It has been described as slightly harder than graphite with a reflection colour of grey to white. However, the existence of carbyne phases is disputed – see the entry on chaoite for details. Metallic carbon: Theoretical studies have shown that there are regions in the phase diagram, at extremely high pressures, where carbon has metallic character.[9] bcc-carbon: At ultrahigh pressures of above 1000 GPa, diamond is predicted to transform into the so-called C8 structure, a body-centered cubic structure with 8 atoms in the unit cell. This cubic carbon phase might have importance in astrophysics. Its structure is known in one of the metastable phases of silicon and is similar to cubane.[10] Superdense and superhard material resembling this phase has been synthesized and published in 2008.[11][12] bct-carbon: Body-centered tetragonal carbon proposed by theorists in 2010 [13][14] T-carbon: Every carbon atom in diamond is replaced with a carbon tetrahedron (hence 'T-carbon'). This was proposed by theorists in 2011.[15] M-carbon: Monoclinic C-centered carbon was first thought to have been created in 1963 by compressing graphite at room temperature. Its structure was theorized in 2006,[16] then in 2009 it was related [17] to those experimental observations. Many structural candidates, including bct-carbon, were proposed to be equally compatible with experimental data available at the time, until in 2012 it was theoretically proven that this structure is kinetically likeliest to form from graphite.[18][19] High-resolution data appeared shortly after, demonstrating that among all structure candidates only M-carbon is compatible with experiment.[20][21] There is an evidence that white dwarf stars have a core of crystallized carbon and oxygen nuclei. The largest of these found in the universe so far, BPM 37093, is located 50 light-years (4.7×1014 km) away in the constellation Centaurus. A news release from the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics described the 2,500-mile (4,000 km)-wide stellar core as a diamond,[22] and it was named as Lucy, after the Beatles' song "Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds";[23] however, it is more likely an exotic form of carbon. Prismane C8 is a theoretically-predicted metastable carbon allotrope comprising an atomic cluster of eight carbon atoms, with the shape of an elongated triangular bipyramid—a six-atom triangular prism with two more atoms above and below its bases.[

GRAPHITE Graphite (named by Abraham Gottlob Werner in 1789, from the Greek γράφειν (graphein, "to draw/write", for its use in pencils) is one of the most common allotropes of carbon. Unlike diamond, graphite is an electrical conductor. Thus, it can be used in, for instance, electrical arc lamp electrodes. Likewise, under standard conditions, graphite is the most stable form of carbon. Therefore, it is used in thermochemistry as the standard state for defining the heat of formation of carbon compounds. Graphite conducts electricity, due to delocalization of the pi bond electrons above and below the planes of the carbon atoms. These electrons are free to move, so are able to conduct electricity. However, the electricity is only conducted along the plane of the layers. In diamond, all four outer electrons of each carbon atom are 'localised' between the atoms in covalent bonding. The movement of electrons is restricted and diamond does not conduct an electric current. In graphite, each carbon atom uses only 3 of its 4 outer energy level electrons in covalently bonding to three other carbon atoms in a plane. Each carbon atom contributes one electron to a delocalised system of electrons that is also a part of the chemical bonding. The delocalised electrons are free to move throughout the plane. For this reason, graphite conducts electricity along the planes of carbon atoms, but does not conduct in a direction at right angles to the plane. Graphite powder is used as a dry lubricant. Although it might be thought that this industrially important property is due entirely to the loose interlamellar coupling between sheets in the structure, in fact in a vacuum environment (such as in technologies for use in space), graphite was found to be a very poor lubricant. This fact led to the discovery that graphite's lubricity is due to adsorbed air and water between the layers, unlike other layered dry lubricants such as molybdenum disulfide. Recent studies suggest that an effect called superlubricity can also account for this effect. When a large number of crystallographic defects bind these planes together, graphite loses its lubrication properties and becomes what is known as pyrolytic carbon, a useful material in blood-contacting implants such as prosthetic heart valves. Natural and crystalline graphites are not often used in pure form as structural materials due to their shear-planes, brittleness and inconsistent mechanical properties. In its pure glassy (isotropic) synthetic forms, pyrolytic graphite and carbon fiber graphite are extremely strong, heat-resistant (to 3000 °C) materials, used in reentry shields for missile nosecones, solid rocket engines, high temperature reactors, brake shoes and electric motor brushes. Intumescent or expandable graphites are used in fire seals, fitted around the perimeter of a fire door. During a fire the graphite intumesces (expands and chars) to resist fire penetration and prevent the spread of fumes. A typical start expansion temperature (SET) is between 150 and 300 °C. Density: graphite's specific gravity is 2.3, which makes it lighter than diamonds. Effect of heat: it is the most stable allotrope of carbon. At high temperatures and pressures (roughly 2000 °C and 5 GPa), it can be transformed into diamond. At about 700 °C it burns in oxygen forming carbon dioxide. Chemical activity: it is slightly more reactive than diamond. This is because the reactants are able to penetrate between the hexagonal layers of carbon atoms in graphite. It is unaffected by ordinary solvents, dilute acids, or fused alkalis. However, chromic acid oxidises it to carbon dioxide.

                                                               DIAMOND
Diamond is one well known allotrope of carbon. The hardness and high dispersion of light of diamond make it useful for both industrial applications and jewellery. Diamond is the hardest known natural mineral. This makes it an excellent abrasive and makes it hold polish and luster extremely well. No known naturally occurring substance can cut (or even scratch) a diamond, except another diamond. The market for industrial-grade diamonds operates much differently from its gem-grade counterpart. Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and heat conductivity, making many of the gemological characteristics of diamond, including clarity and color, mostly irrelevant. This helps explain why 80% of mined diamonds (equal to about 100 million carats or 20 tonnes annually) are unsuitable for use as gemstones and known as bort, are destined for industrial use. In addition to mined diamonds, synthetic diamonds found industrial applications almost immediately after their invention in the 1950s; another 400 million carats (80 tonnes) of synthetic diamonds are produced annually for industrial use—nearly four times the mass of natural diamonds mined over the same period. The dominant industrial use of diamond is in cutting, drilling (drill bits), grinding (diamond edged cutters), and polishing. Most uses of diamonds in these technologies do not require large diamonds; in fact, most diamonds that are gem-quality can find an industrial use. Diamonds are embedded in drill tips or saw blades, or ground into a powder for use in grinding and polishing applications. Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for high pressure experiments (see diamond anvil), high-performance bearings, and limited use in specialized windows. With the continuing advances being made in the production of synthetic diamond, future applications are beginning to become feasible. Garnering much excitement is the possible use of diamond as a semiconductor suitable to build microchips from, or the use of diamond as a heat sink in electronics. Significant research efforts in Japan, Europe, and the United States are under way to capitalize on the potential offered by diamond's unique material properties, combined with increased quality and quantity of supply starting to become available from synthetic diamond manufacturers. Each carbon atom in a diamond is covalently bonded to four other carbons in a tetrahedron. These tetrahedrons together form a 3-dimensional network of six-membered carbon rings (similar to cyclohexane), in the chair conformation, allowing for zero bond angle strain. This stable network of covalent bonds and hexagonal rings, is the reason that diamond is so incredibly strong.

                                                              BLOGOSPHERE
Back to the blogosphere, after a giant hiatus. So much to tell, so little time. At the moment, our newest and sweetest little man, Ben William Broderick, is not feeling the best, upstairs in his bassinet. He is now 4 1/2 months and when Gracie was this age, I had about a million posts about her every breath. Him. Not so much. Not to say I dont love him as much because he is the sweetest little fella ever!! I am looking forward to posting more pics, documenting what the kids are doing and keeping up with fellow bloggers (Mari and Kelly! Holla;) Here are some pics to kickstart this blogging thing again! Ohhhhhhh snap. I don't understand this new blogger. How do I get a photo?! Sigh, Im going to bed. Help!!!!!!

दुर्गा के विभिन्न रूपों पूजा के विभिन्न प्रकार नवरात्रि Mahalaya दशहरा दुर्गा पूजा के अनिवार्य बंगाली विश्वास महाकाव्यों क्या कहते हैं - 'Akalbodhan' 108 दुर्गा नाम दुर्गा Sahasranamam दुर्गा पूजा के क्षेत्रीय नाम दुर्गा पूजा फास्ट दुर्गा आरती दुर्गा भजन दुर्गा चालीसा दुर्गा स्तुति दुर्गा Kawach दुर्गा पूजा का समय दुर्गा पूजा व्यंजन विधि दुर्गा पूजा अभिवादन दुर्गा पूजा कैलेंडर दुर्गा पूजा कार्ड दुर्गा पूजा उपहार दुर्गा पूजा निबंध फोटो गैलरी दुर्गा पूजा संसाधन दुर्गा पूजा निबंध 1-निबंध , निबंध-2 , निबंध-3 , निबंध-4 , निबंध-5 एक औरत जो परम शक्ति के अधिकारी. लेखा नायर द्वारा एक भारतीय त्योहार के महत्व शब्द नवरात्रि का अर्थ है नौ रातों. ' नवरात्रि के दौरान, हम प्रत्येक तीन दिनों के लिए है कि आदेश में, देवी दुर्गा, लक्ष्मी और सरस्वती की पूजा करते हैं. सबसे महत्वपूर्ण दिन 10 दिन है, Vijayadashami. शब्द Vijayadashami जीत के '10th दिन का मतलब है. ' मैं आप इस त्योहार के महत्व को बता देंगे. हम देवी दुर्गा की पूजा करते हैं क्योंकि वह शक्ति है - शक्ति. यह करने में मदद के लिए हमें हमारे सकारात्मक भीतर खुद के बारे में सोचते हैं मतलब है. हम देवी लक्ष्मी की पूजा करते हैं क्योंकि वह धन और समृद्धि देता है. वह मूल रूप से सकारात्मक गुण है कि अपने नकारात्मक गुण पर काबू पाने के लिए उपयोगी होते हैं का प्रतीक है. कारण हम सरस्वती की पूजा करते हैं, क्योंकि वह ज्ञान का अवतार है. इस पूजा के लिए हम हमारी किताबें, संगीत वाद्ययंत्र और कुछ भी है कि हमें भगवान से पहले मंच पर ज्ञान देता है ज्ञान के इन उपकरणों के लिए हमारे सम्मान दिखाने के डाल दिया. पूजा के इस तरह के मुख्य महत्व यह है कि आप अपने बुरे पक्ष या नकारात्मक पक्ष नहीं है, चलो जीत चाहिए. क्या आत्म - नियंत्रण शक्ति का उपयोग कर. तो आप लक्ष्मी पूजा से सकारात्मक वृद्धि हुई है. एक बार अपने सकारात्मक पक्ष जीतता है आप ज्ञान में सरस्वती के साथ ले सकते हैं. अंत में, आप एक भगवान के साथ हो जाएगा. मोक्ष प्राप्त करने के लिए विभिन्न चरणों में हैं. यह त्यौहार हमें इस प्रक्रिया की याद दिलाता है. नवरात्रि के नौवें दिन Ayudha पूजा है. इस दिन हम हमारे उपकरण और उपकरणों, और अन्य दैनिक जीवन में प्रयोग की वस्तुओं की पूजा करते हैं, क्योंकि वे हमें अपने लक्ष्यों को प्राप्त करने में मदद. जीत - 10 दिन, Vijayadashami, हम विजय का जश्न मनाने. दुर्गा बुराई असुर Mahisura जो हमारे नकारात्मक खुद के विनाश को मार डाला. सीखने के लिए इस दिन. आप हमेशा एक शुरुआत की तरह लगता है, आप की तरह अभी भी बहुत अधिक जानने के लिए है, और उसके बाद ही आप एक मन नए विचारों के लिए खुला होगा. इस दिन के लिए प्रयासों शुरू करने के लिए अच्छा है. छोटे बच्चों को भी चावल का अनाज में वर्णमाला के एक पत्र लिख कर उनकी शिक्षा शुरू करने की कोशिश है. Vijayadashami पर, मैं उन्हें जाकर और कुछ नया सीखने के द्वारा अपने सभी शिक्षकों के लिए आभार दिखाते हैं. मेरा संगीत शिक्षक हमेशा कुछ है कि सीढ़ियों का एक सेट की तरह लग रहा है सेट. वह यह कपड़े में शामिल किया गया है और उसे गुड़िया, मूर्तियों, और रोशनी डालता है यह ऊपर. इस सेटअप kolu कहा जाता है. महिला मिठाई, नारियल, और कपड़ों के विनिमय उपहार साझा करने और सद्भावना की भावना दिखाने के लिए. अन्य बातें लोगों को करना होगा, फल और दूध के व्रत, मंत्र जप (जप रूप में भी जाना जाता है) अपने अलग अलग रूपों में देवी को समर्पित कर रहे हैं. Vijaydashami भी कहा जाता है दशहरा बुराई पर अच्छाई की जीत - रावण पर राम की जीत का जश्न मनाने के लिए. रावण और अन्य राक्षसों की बड़ी प्रतिमाओं रात में जला रहे हैं और आतिशबाजी कर रहे हैं. Ganna चक्र से एक दुर्गा ध्यान आकाश, पृथ्वी, सामान, बिजली की तीखी आवाज किस्में ड्राइंग पास बिजली कुर्सियां, उसके बारे में ऊर्जा का एक प्रभामंडल के बाहर से बाहर जहाँ भी हो, दुर्गा के रूप में अपने आसपास के बाहर coalescing कल्पना. दुर्गा के रूप में आप ऊपर बनाने कल्पना. उसके पैरों को अपने सिर पर लग रहा है, अपने शरीर के माध्यम से सत्ता के भूचाल, और कल्पना अपने आप को उसके बाघ की पीठ पर जा बैठा. दुर्गा की शक्ति के माध्यम से आप दौड़ लग रहा है और उसके गुणों पर ध्यान. हथियार है जो दुर्गा भालू (देवताओं द्वारा उसे दिया) यह ध्यान में, ले जाया जा सकता है, के रूप में 'संलग्नक' - चीजें हैं जो आपको लगता है कि आप की जरूरत है, उपकरण है जो आप शायद पर बहुत अधिक भरोसा करते हैं. दुर्गा के रूप में खुद के द्वारा Mahisa को हराया है, तो भी, आप अपनी शक्ति और शिष्टता में अपने उपकरण और संलग्नक के बजाय, रहता है. >> यहाँ क्लिक करें अपने निबंध सबमिट << 1-निबंध , निबंध-2 , निबंध-3 , निबंध-4 , निबंध-5