terrorism in india breifly

A common definition of terrorism is the systematic use or threatened use of violence to intimidate a population or government and thereby effect political, religious, or ideological change.[1][2] Terrorism in India, according to the Home Ministry, poses a significant threat to the state. Terrorism in India are basically two types external and internal, external terrorism emerge from neighboring countries and internal terrorism emulates from religious or communal violence and Naxalite–Maoist insurgency. Terror activities involve either Indian or foreign citizens. The regions with long term terrorist activities today are Jammu and Kashmir, Mumbai, Central India (Naxalism) and the Seven Sister States (independence and autonomy movements). As of 2006, at least 232 of the country’s 608 districts were afflicted, at differing intensities, by various insurgent and terrorist movements.[3] In August 2008, National Security Advisor M K Narayanan has said that there are as many as 800 terrorist cells operating in the country.[4] Contents [show] Chronology of major incidents [show] v t e Terrorist attacks in India (since 2001) Main article: Chronology of major terrorist incidents in India Western India Maharashtra Mumbai Mumbai has been the most preferred target for most terrorist organizations, primarily the separatist forces from Pakistan.[citation needed] Over the past few years there have been a series of attacks, including explosions in local trains in July 2006, and the most recent and unprecedented attacks of 26 November 2008, when two of the prime hotels, a landmark train station, and a Jewish Chabad house, in South Mumbai, were attacked and sieged.[citation needed] Terrorist attacks in Mumbai include: 12 March 1993 - Series of 13 bombs go off, killing 257 6 December 2002 - Bomb goes off in a bus in Ghatkopar, killing 2 27 January 2003 - Bomb goes off on a bicycle in Vile Parle, killing 1 14 March 2003 - Bomb goes off in a train in Mulund, killing 10 28 July 2003 - Bomb goes off in a bus in Ghatkopar, killing 4 25 August 2003 - Two Bombs go off in cars near the Gateway of India and Zaveri Bazaar, killing 50 11 July 2006 - Series of seven bombs go off in trains, killing 209 26 November 2008 to 29 November 2008 - Coordinated series of attacks, killing at least 172. 13 July 2011 - Three coordinated bomb explosions at different locations, killing 26 Pune Terrorist attacks elsewhere in Maharashtra: 13 February 2010 - a bomb explosion at the German Bakery in Pune killed fourteen people, and injured at least 60 more 1 August 2012 - four bomb explosion at various locations on JM Road, Pune injured 1 person Jammu and Kashmir Main article: Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir Armed insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir has killed tens of thousands to date.[citation needed] Northern and Northwestern India Bihar The existence of certain insurgent groups, like the CPI-ML, Peoples war, and MCC, is a major concern, as they frequently attack local police and politicians. Poor governance and the law and order system in Bihar have helped increase the menace caused by the militias. The State has witnessed many massacres by these groups. The main victims of the violence by these groups are helpless people (including women, children, and the elderly) who are killed in massacres. The state police is ill-equipped to take on the AK-47s and AK-56s of the militants with their vintage 303 rifles. The militants have also used landmines to kill ambush police parties. The root cause of the militant activities in the state is huge disparity between the caste groups. After Independence, land reforms were supposed to be implemented, thereby giving the low caste and the poor a share in the lands, which was until then held mostly by high caste people. However, due to caste based divisive politics in the state, land reforms were never implemented properly. This led to a growing sense of alienation among the low caste. Communist groups like CPI-ML, MCC, and People's War took advantage of this and instigated the low caste people to take up arms against establishment, which was seen as a tool in the hands of rich. They started taking up lands of the rich by force, killing the high caste people. The high caste people resorted to use of force by forming their own army, Ranvir Sena, to take on the naxalites. The State witnessed a bloody period in which the groups tried to prove their supremacy through mass killings. The police remained a mute witness to these killings, as they lacked the means to take any action. The Ranvir Sena has now significantly weakened with the arrest of its top brass. The other groups are still active. There have been arrests in various parts of the country, particularly those made by the Delhi and Mumbai police in the recent past, indicating that extremist/terrorist outfits have been spreading their networks in this state. There is a strong suspicion that Bihar is also being used as a transit point by the small-arms, fake currency and drug dealers entering from Nepal and terrorists reportedly infiltrating through Nepal and Bangladesh. In recent years, these attacks by various caste groups have come down with better government being practised. Punjab The Sikhs form a majority in the Indian state of Punjab. During the 1970s, a section of Sikh leaders cited various political, social, and cultural issues to allege that the Sikhs were being cornered and ignored in Indian Society, and Sikhism was being absorbed into the Hindu fold. This gradually led to an armed movement in the Punjab, led by some key figures demanding a separate state for Sikhs. The insurgency intensified during the 1980s, when the movement turned violent and the name Khalistan resurfaced and sought independence from the Indian Union. Led by Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale who, though not in favour in the creation of Khalistan, was also not against it, they began using militancy to stress the movement's demands. Soon things turned extreme with India alleging that neighbouring Pakistan supported these militants, who, by 1983-84, had begun to enjoy widespread support among Sikhs. In 1984, Operation Blue Star was conducted by the Indian government to stem out the movement. It involved an assault on the Golden Temple complex, which Sant Bhindranwale had fortified in preparation of an army assault. Indira Gandhi, India's then prime minister, ordered the military to storm the temple, who eventually had to use tanks. After a 74 hour firefight, the army successfully took control of the temple. In doing so, it damaged some portions of the Akal Takht, the Sikh Reference Library, and the Golden Temple itself. According to Indian government sources, 83 army personnel were killed and 249 were injured. Militant casualties were 493 killed and 86 injured. During the same year, the assassination of Indira Gandhi by two Sikh bodyguards, believed to be driven by the Golden Temple affair, resulted in widespread anti-Sikh riots, especially in New Delhi. Following Operation Black Thunder in 1988, Punjab Police, first under Julio Ribeiro and then under KPS Gill, together with the Indian Army, eventually succeeded in pushing the movement underground. In 1985, Sikh terrorists bombed an Air India flight from Canada to India, killing all 329 people on board Air India Flight 182. It was the worst terrorist act in Canada's history. The ending of Sikh militancy and the desire for a Khalistan catalyzed when the then-Prime Minister of Pakistan, Benazir Bhutto, handed all intelligence material concerning Punjab militancy to the Indian government, as a goodwill gesture. The Indian government used that intelligence to put an end to those who were behind attacks in India and militancy. The ending of overt Sikh militancy in 1993 led to a period of relative calm, punctuated by militant acts (for example, the assassination of Punjab CM, Beant Singh, in 1995) attributed to half a dozen or so operating Sikh militant organisations. These organisations include Babbar Khalsa International, Khalistan Commando Force, Khalistan Liberation Force, and Khalistan Zindabad Force. New Delhi 2011 High court bombing Main article: 2011_Delhi_bombing The 2011 Delhi bombing took place in the Indian capital Delhi on Wednesday, 7 September 2011 at 10:14 local time outside Gate No. 5 of the Delhi High Court, where a suspected briefcase bomb was planted.[5] The blast killed 12 people and injured 76. 2007 Delhi security summit Main article: 2007 Delhi security summit The Delhi summit on security took place on 14 February 2007 with the foreign ministers of China, India, and Russia meeting in Hyderabad House, Delhi, India, to discuss terrorism, drug trafficking, reform of the United Nations, and the security situations in Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, and North Korea.[5][6] 2005 Delhi bombings Main article: 29 October 2005 Delhi bombings Three explosions went off in the Indian capital of New Delhi on 29 October 2005, which killed more than 60 people and injured at least 200 others. The high number of casualties made the bombings the deadliest attack in India in 2005. It was followed by 5 bomb blasts on 13 September 2008. 2001 Attack on Indian parliament Terrorists on 13 December 2001 attacked the Parliament of India, resulting in a 45-minute gun battle in which 9 policemen and parliament staff were killed. All five terrorists were also killed by the security forces and were identified as Pakistani nationals. The attack took place around 11:40 am (IST), minutes after both Houses of Parliament had adjourned for the day. The suspected terrorists dressed in commando fatigues entered Parliament in a car through the VIP gate of the building. Displaying Parliament and Home Ministry security stickers, the vehicle entered the Parliament premises. The terrorists set off massive blasts and used AK-47 rifles, explosives, and grenades for the attack. Senior Ministers and over 200 Members of Parliament were inside the Central Hall of Parliament when the attack took place. Security personnel sealed the entire premises, which saved many lives. Uttar Pradesh 2005 Ayodhya attacks Main article: 2005 Ram Janmabhoomi attack in Ayodhya The long simmering Ayodhya crisis finally culminated in a terrorist attack on the site of the 16th century Babri Masjid. The ancient Masjid in Ayodhya was demolished on 5 July 2005. Following the two-hour gunfight between Lashkar-e-Toiba terrorists based in Pakistan and Indian police, in which six terrorists were killed, opposition parties called for a nationwide strike with the country's leaders condemning the attack, believed to have been masterminded by Dawood Ibrahim. 2010 Varanasi blasts Main article: 2010 Varanasi bombing On 7 December 2010, another blast occurred in Varanasi, that killed immediately a toddler, and set off a stampede in which 20 people, including four foreigners, were injured.[7] The responsibility for the attack was claimed by the Islamist millitant group Indian Mujahideen.[8] 2006 Varanasi blasts Main article: 2006 Varanasi bombings A series of blasts occurred across the Hindu holy city of Varanasi on 7 March 2006. Fifteen people are reported to have been killed and as many as 101 others were injured. No one has accepted responsibility for the attacks, but it is speculated that the bombings were carried out in retaliation of the arrest of a Lashkar-e-Toiba agent in Varanasi earlier in February 2006. On 5 April 2006 the Indian police arrested six Islamic militants, including a cleric who helped plan bomb blasts. The cleric is believed to be a commander of a banned Bangladeshi Islamic militant group, Harkatul Jihad-al Islami, and is linked to the Inter-Services Intelligence, the Pakistani spy agency.[9] Northeastern India Main article: Insurgency in North-East India Northeastern India consists of seven states (also known as the seven sisters): Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur, and Nagaland. Tensions exists between these states and the central government, as well as amongst the tribal people, who are natives of these states, and migrant peoples from other parts of India. The states have accused New Delhi of ignoring the issues concerning them. It is this feeling which has led the natives of these states to seek greater participation in self-governance. There are existing territorial disputes between Manipur and Nagaland. There is a rise of insurgent activities and regional movements in the northeast, especially in the states of Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram, and Tripura. Most of these organisations demand independent state status or increased regional autonomy and sovereignty. Northeastern regional tension has eased of late with Indian and state governments' concerted effort to raise the living standards of the people in these regions. However, militancy still exists in this region of India supported by external sources. Nagaland The first and perhaps the most significant insurgency was in Nagaland from the early 1950s until it was finally quelled in the early 1980s through a mixture of repression and co-optation. The National Socialist Council of Nagaland-Isak-Muivah (NSCN-IM), demands an independent Nagaland and has carried out several attacks on Indian military installations in the region. According to government officials, 599 civilians, 235 security forces, and 862 terrorists have lost their lives between 1992 and 2000. On 14 June 2001, a ceasefire agreement was signed between the government of India and the NSCN-IM, which had received widespread approval and support in Nagaland. Terrorist outfits such as the Naga National Council-Federal (NNC-F) and the National Council of Nagaland-Khaplang (NSCN-K) also welcomed the development. Certain neighbouring states, especially Manipur, raised serious concerns over the ceasefire. They feared that NSCN would continue insurgent activities in its state and demanded New Delhi scrap the ceasefire deal and renew military action. Despite the ceasefire, the NSCN has continued its insurgency.[citation needed] Assam After Nagaland, Assam is the most volatile state in the region. Beginning in 1979, the indigenous people of Assam demanded that the illegal immigrants who had emigrated from Bangladesh to Assam be detected and deported. The movement led by All Assam Students Union began non-violently with satyagraha, boycotts, picketing, and courting arrests. Those protesting frequently came under police action. In 1983 an election was conducted, which was opposed by the movement leaders. The election led to widespread violence. The movement finally ended after the movement leaders signed an agreement (called the Assam Accord) with the central government on 15 August 1985. Under the provisions of this accord, anyone who entered the state illegally between January 1966 and March 1971 was allowed to remain but was disenfranchised for ten years, while those who entered after 1971 faced expulsion. A November 1985 amendment to the Indian citizenship law allows non-citizens who entered Assam between 1961 and 1971 to have all the rights of citizenship except the right to vote for a period of ten years. New Delhi also gave special administration autonomy to the Bodos in the state. However, the Bodos demanded a separate Bodoland, which led to a clash between the Bengalis, the Bodos, and the Indian military resulting in hundreds of deaths. There are several organisations that advocate the independence of Assam. The most prominent of these is the United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA). Formed in 1979, the ULFA has two main goals: the independence of Assam and the establishment of a socialist government. The ULFA has carried out several terrorist attacks in the region targeting the Indian Military and non-combatants. The group assassinates political opponents, attacks police and other security forces, blasts railroad tracks, and attacks other infrastructure facilities. The ULFA is believed to have strong links with the Nationalist Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN), Maoists, and the Naxalites. It is also believed that they carry out most of their operations from the Kingdom of Bhutan. Because of ULFA's increased visibility, the Indian government outlawed the group in 1986 and declared Assam a troubled area. Under pressure from New Delhi, Bhutan carried a massive operation to drive out the ULFA militants from its territory. Backed by the Indian Army, Thimphu was successful in killing more than a thousand terrorists and extraditing many more to India while sustaining only 120 casualties. The Indian military undertook several successful operations aimed at countering future ULFA terrorist attacks, but the ULFA continues to be active in the region. In 2004, the ULFA targeted a public school in Assam, killing 19 children and 5 adults. Assam remains the only state in the northeast where terrorism is still a major issue. The Indian Military was successful in dismantling terrorist outfits in other areas, but have been criticised by human rights groups for allegedly using harsh methods when dealing with terrorists. On 18 September 2005, a soldier was killed in Jiribam, Manipur, near the Manipur-Assam border, by members of the ULFA. On 14 March 2011 militants of the Ranjan Daimary-led faction ambushed patrolling troop of BSF when on way from Bangladoba in Chirang district of Assam to Ultapani in Kokrajhar killing 8 jawans.[10] Tripura Tripura witnessed a surge in terrorist activities in the 1990s. New Delhi blamed Bangladesh for providing a safe haven to the insurgents operating from its territory. The area under control of the Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council was increased after a tripartite agreement between New Delhi, the state government of Tripura, and the Council. The government has since brought the movement under control, and the government of Tripura has so far succeeded to limit the terrorist activities. Manipur In Manipur, militants formed an organisation known as the People's Liberation Army. Their main goal was to unite the Meitei tribes of Burma and establish an independent state of Manipur. However, the movement was thought to have been suppressed after a fierce clash with Indian security forces in the mid 1990s. On 18 September 2005, six separatist rebels were killed in fighting between the Zomi Revolutionary Army and the Zomi Revolutionary Front in the Churachandpur District. On 20 September 2005, 14 Indian soldiers were ambushed and killed by 20 rebels from the Kanglei Yawol Kanna Lup (KYKL) terrorist organization, armed with AK-56 rifles, in the village of Nariang, 22 miles southwest of Manipur's capital Imphal[citation needed]. "Unidentified rebels using automatic weapons ambushed a road patrol of the army's Gorkha Rifles killing eight on the spot," said a spokesman for the Indian government. Mizoram The Mizo National Front fought for over two decades with the Indian Military in an effort to gain independence. As in neighbouring states the insurgency was quelled by force. South India Karnataka Karnataka is considerably less affected by terrorism, despite having many places of historical importance and the IT hub of India, Bengaluru. However, recently Naxal activity has been increasing in the Western Ghats. Bengaluru Also, a few attacks have occurred, major ones including an attack on IISc on 28 December 2005 and serial blasts in Bengaluru on 26 July 2008. Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh is one of the few southern states affected by terrorism, although of a far different kind and on a much smaller scale.[citation needed] The terrorism in Andhra Pradesh stems from the People's War Group (PWG), popularly known as Naxalites. The PWG has been operating in India for over two decades, with most of its operations in the Telangana[citation needed] region in Andhra Pradesh. The group is also active in Orissa and Bihar. Unlike the Kashmiri insurgents and ULFA, PWG is a Maoist terrorist organisation and communism is one of its primary goals.[citation needed] Having failed to capture popular support in the elections, they resorted to violence as a means to voice their opinions. The group targets Indian Police, multinational companies, and other influential institutions in the name of the communism. PWG has also targeted senior government officials, including the attempted assassination of former Andhra Pradesh Chief Minister Chandrababu Naidu. It reportedly has a strength of 800 to 1,000 well armed militants and is believed to have close links with the Maoists in Nepal and the LTTE of Sri Lanka. According to the Indian government, on an average, more than 60 civilians, 60 naxal rebels and a dozen policemen are killed every year because of PWG led insurgency. Also, one of the major terrorist attacks was the 25 August 2007 Hyderabad Bombing.[by whom?] Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu had LTTE (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam) militants operating in the Tamil Nadu state up until the assassination of former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi. LTTE had given many speeches in Tamil Nadu led by Velupillai Prabhakaran, Tamilselvan, and other Eelam members. The Tamil Tigers, now a banned organisation, had been receiving many donations and support from India in the past. The Tamil Nadu Liberation Army is a militant Tamil movement in India that has ties to LTTE.[citation needed] 1998 Coimbatore bombings Tamil Nadu also faced terrorist attacks orchestrated by Muslim fundamentalists. For more information, see 1998 Coimbatore bombings. Kerala For a long time, Kerala was considered as a terror free state and model of tolerance and prosperity. The wake-up call came in October 2008, when four young Malayalis were killed by Indian security forces in an alleged jihadi training camp in Kashmir. Last July a different threat emerged when a group of young Muslims cut off the hand of a Christian professor, condemning him for writing an exam question they said insulted the Prophet Muhammad. According to Time Magazine, migrants to the Persian Gulf were taking extremist ideology to Kerala.[11] In popular culture Terrorism has also been depicted in various Indian films, prominent among them being Mani Ratnam's Roja (1992) and Dil Se.. (1998), Govind Nihlani's Drohkaal (1994), Santosh Sivan's The Terrorist (1999), Anurag Kashyap's Black Friday (2004) on the 1993 Bombay bombings, Fanaa (2006), and recently Sikandar (2009) on Terrorism in Kashmir. Raj Kumar Gupta's Aamir (2008) and Amal Neerad's Anwar (2010) are other examples.

TERRORISM IN INDIA

The way it has grown and spread beyond limits during the last few years, is a matter of great concern for all of us. Though it has been condemned and denounced by leaders in international forums, it is increasing by leaps and bounds and is in evidence everywhere. The trigger-happy terrorists and extremists use all sorts of weapons and strategies to terrorize their adversaries. They explode bombs, use rifles, hand-grenades, rockets, ransack houses, loot banks and establishments, destroy religious places, kidnap people, highjack buses and planes, indulge in arson and rape and do not spare even children. Consequently, the world is becoming a totally unsafe, insecure, dangerous and fearful place day by day. This ruthless chain of action and reaction, full of horrifying violence, is much too dangerous to be ignored or taken lightly. Terrorism, violence, bloodshed, and killings, etc. have become the order of the day. India, Pakistan, the whole of the Middle East, Afghanistan, parts of Europe, Latin America, and Sri Lanka, etc. all seem to be in the grip of this many-headed monster. Terrorists aim at achieving political power by overthrowing and destroying the democratic and lawful governments. They try to create disturbance and unstable conditions on a vast scale to achieve their own political ends. They are trained, inspired and financed by very powerful national and international vested interests. They receive deadly weapons and ammunition from these powers and create havoc. This ugly and dangerous socio­political phenomenon called terrorism knows no limits of land, time, race, religion or creed. It is spread worldwide and is becoming more and more popular among the politically frustrated groups, religious fundamentalists and misled factions in the society. They indulge in all sorts of anti-social and anti- government activities to achieve their narrow, sectarian and unholy aims. Sometimes, the terrorists may have very good objectives but then they resort to violence as they are unable to participate in the democratic process because of their various inherent weaknesses. Terrorism in India is not new, but it has increased very rapidly in the last few years. Terrorism in India should be looked upon as an integral part of our colonial legacy. The British followed the policy of ‘divide and rule’ and ultimately divided the subcontinent into two nations, which later grew into three after the independence of Bangladesh. Post-independence and post-partition violence and terrorism was unprecedented. This partition on the basis of religion, faith and community has sown seeds of hatred, violence, terrorism, separatism and communal divide and will continue growing and flowering for a long time. The rise of extremism arid terrorism in our north-eastern states of Nagaland, Mizoram, Tripura, Manipur, and Assam, etc. is also part of our colonial legacy. The long colonial rule never attempted to bring the tribals of these states into the mainstream of the nation. Rather, a feeling of hatred, alienation and disharmony was created in their hearts. Consequently, they felt neglected after independence and could not take part in the democratic process of the country. They were misled by a false sense of losing their ethnic identity and independence, and decided to take to terrorism and violence. They were helped in their futile armed struggle by neighboring countries, who never liked to see India as a united, powerful, and successful democracy. This emergence of terrorism in our north-eastern states also reflects the lack of will and proper efforts on the part of our political leaders and the government to bring these big groups of tribals into the national mainstream and the democratic process. Besides socio-political and economic aspects, psychological, emotional and religious aspects are also involved in the problem. All these create strong feelings and extremism. The unprecedented spate of terrorism in the recent past in Punjab can be understood and appreciated only in this background. The demand for a separate Khalistan by these alienated sections of the society became so strong and powerful at one point in time that it put our unity and integrity under strain. But ultimately good sense prevailed, both on the government and the people, and electoral process was started in which the people participated wholeheartedly. This involvement of people in the democratic process, coupled with strong measures adopted by security forces, helped us wage a successful battle against terrorism in Punjab. Terrorism, as a means to achieve socio-political aims in Punjab got much support from Pakistan by way of supply of arms and ammunition, training and finance. The people in power in Pakistan have always been hostile to India because of their own political compulsions. They have been trying their best to stabilized and disturb the society in India. They train and equip terrorists with arms and then smuggle them into the country. Poverty, unemployment, and lack of education, etc. among the people further worsen the situation. Under various political, communal and economical pressures, they succumb to the temptations and discard the democratic process, finding it unsuitable for improving their miserable lot. Terrorism in Jammu and Kashmir is of this nature. Widespread poverty, unemployment, neglect of youth, peasants and working class and emotional alienation are some of the main reasons of extremism in the province. The hostile forces across our borders are also helping it a lot. The emergence of Bangladesh as an independent state with India’s help was too much for Pakistan to tolerate. Smarting under this humiliation, the leaders of Pakistan spare no pains to destabilize and disturb peace in the Indian sub-continent. The series of bomb-blasts in Mumbai and other cities of India were planned in Pakistan and executed with their financial help. Pakistan-sponsored terrorism in Jammu and Kashmir has caused deaths of thousands of people, including innocent civilians, defence and security personnel during the last five years. It has also caused loss of property worth several cores of rupees in the state. In spite of loud and vociferous denouncement of terrorism and extremism in various international forums by the Pakistan government, militants, fundamentalist and terrorists are being trained there in secret and well-established camps run by the ISI and other such groups and agencies. These extremists have found a very safe sanctuary there. It has been established beyond any shadow of doubt that Pakistan-trained militants and extremists had their hand in the 2001 crash of the U.S. World Trade Centre in New York. Such activities certainly boomerang and now Pakistan finds itself in the grip of terrorism. During the year 2002, over one thousand people have been killed in terrorist activities in the city of Karachi alone. The communal, fundamentalist and sectarian clashes, violence and militancy among the Mohair’s, Sunnis, Shias and other such groups is now very common there. The roots of organised and large scale terrorism and violence in Pakistan are quite deep and widespread. Terrorism is a global problem and as such it cannot be solved in isolation. What are needed are international co-operative efforts to fight against this global menace. All the governments of the world should simultaneously and continuously crack down on militants and terrorists. The global menace can be reduced and eliminated only by close co-operation between various countries. The countries from where militancy springs should be clearly identified and declared as terrorist states. It is very difficult for any terrorist activity to thrive for long in a country unless there is strong external support to it. Terrorism achieves nothing, solves nothing and the quicker this is understood, the better. It is sheer madness and an exercise in futility. In terrorism there cannot be a victor or vanquished. If terrorism becomes a way of life, the leaders and heads of states of the various countries alone are to blame. This vicious circle is their own creation and only their combined and pooled efforts can check it. Terrorism is a crime against humanity and should be dealt with an iron hand and the forces behind it should be exposed. Terrorism adversely affects the quality of life and hardens attitudes. In the ultimate analysis, all terrorist groups are criminal. They do not distinguish between good and evil; neither do they spare anybody, not even women and children. For example, Jadish-e-Mohammed, a terrorist outfit active in Kashmir, has been most ruthless and rapacious. It began as a support organisation for Afghan Mujahedeen in the beginning of 1980s. It is now operating worldwide under different names. Their professed aim is to establish Islam throughout the world, through jihad. They train their cadres in making bombs, explosives, hurling grenades and using light and heavy weapons. They have a large number of hideouts in the valley of Kashmir. The man, who made the bomb that blew off the New York World Trade Centre, belonged to this group. They find the whole world, including India, a fair game for their terrorist acts.

Chhath (Hindi: छठ, also called Dala Chhath) is an ancient Hindu festival and only Vedic Festival dedicated to the Hindu Sun God, Surya, also known as Surya Shashti.[1] The Chhath Puja is performed in order to thank Surya for sustaining life on earth and to request the granting of certain wishes.[2] The Sun, considered the god of energy and of the life-force, is worshiped during the Chhath fesival to promote well-being, prosperity and progress. In Hinduism, Sun worship is believed to help cure a variety of diseases, including leprosy, and helps ensure the longevity and prosperity of family members, friends, and elders. The rituals of the festival are rigorous and are observed over a period of four days. They include holy bathing, fasting and abstaining from drinking water (Vratta), standing in water for long periods of time, and offering prashad (prayer offerings) and aragh to the setting and rising sun. Although it is observed most elaborately in Bihar, Jharkhand, Eastern UP and the Terai regions of Nepal in modern times, and is more prevalent in areas where migrants from those areas have a presence, it is celebrated in all regions and major urban centers in India. The festival is celebrated in the regions including but not exclusive to the northeast region of India, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Chandigarh, Gujarat,[3] Delhi,[4] Mumbai[5] and Mauritius.[6] Contents [hide] 1 Date of the festival 1.1 Etymology 2 History 3 Chhathi Maiya 4 Rituals and traditions 5 Yogic viewpoint 5.1 The Yogic Philosophy of Chhath 5.2 Stages of Chhath (Conscious Photoenergization Process) 5.3 Benefits of Chhath process 5.4 Benefits of Chhath Puja 5.5 Daily sun meditation (Chhath process) 6 Pictures of Chhath 7 References 8 External links [edit]Date of the festival Chhath puja is performed on kartika Shukala Shashti, which is the sixth day of the month of Kartika in the Hindu Calendar. This falls typically in the month of October or November in the Gregorian Calendar. It is also celebrated in the summer (March–April), on Chaitra Shashti, some days after Holi; this event is called Chaiti Chhath.[7] The former is more popular because winter is the usual festive season in North India, and Chhath, being an arduous observance, requiring the worshipers to fast without water for around 36 hours continuously, is easier to undertake in the Indian winters. [edit]Etymology The word chhath denotes the number 6 in Hindi[8] and the festival is celebrated on the sixth day of the Hindu lunar month of KARTIKA. The word is a Prakrit derivation from the Sanskrit ṣaṣṭhi, meaning sixth. [edit]History It is believed that the Maga Purohits (modern days known as Shakya Dwipi Brahmins) were invited by local kings for their expertise in Sun worshiping. They started the tradition of Chhat Puja. Today Chhat Puja is celebrated specially in those places where Shakya Dwipi Brahmins are found. It is believed that the ritual of Chhath puja may even predate the ancient Vedas texts, as the Rigveda contains hymns worshiping the Sun god and describes similar rituals. The rituals also find reference in the Sanskrit epic poem Mahābhārata in which Draupadi is depicted as observing similar rites. In the poem, Draupadi and the Pandavas, rulers of Hastinapur (modern Delhi), performed the Chhath ritual on the advice of noble sage Dhaumya. Through her worship of the Sun God, Draupadi was not only able to solve her immediate problems, but also helped the Pandavas later regain their lost kingdom. It is also believed that Chhath was started by Karna, the son of Surya (Surya Putra Karna). Surya Putra Karna ruled over the Anga Desh (present day Bhagalpur district of Bihar) during the Mahabharat Age. He was a great warrior and fought against the Pandavas in the Kurukshetra War. Its yogic/scientific history dates back to the Vedic times. The rishis of yore used this method to remain without any external intake of food as they were able to obtain energy directly from the sun's rays. This was done through the Chhath method.[9] The chhat puja is very popular in Dehri-On-Sone (Rohtas),Patna, Dev & Gaya. Nowadays it is celebrated in approximately all parts of India. Chhath Pooja is also celebrated in Mangalore, Karnataka. People from Bihar & UP celebrate Chhath Pooja on Panambur Beach. [edit]Chhathi Maiya It is also said that the Goddess that is worshipped during the famous Chhath Puja is known as Chhathi Maiya. Chhathi Maiya is known as Usha in the Vedas. She is believed to be the consort of Surya, the sun god. Some scholars are of the view that she is only the beloved of Surya and some suggest that She is Surya’s wife. Usha is the term used to refer to dawn – The first light of day. But in the Rig Veda she has more symbolic meaning. Symbolically Usha is the dawn of divine consciousness in the individual aspirant. During the Chhath Puja, Chhathi Maiya is invoked to bless us with this divine consciousness which will help us to overcome all the troubles in the world – this bless will help us to Moksha or liberation. [edit]Rituals and traditions Chhath is a festival of bathing and worshipping,that follows a period of abstinence and segregation of the worshiper from the main household for four days. During this period, the worshiper observes purity, and sleeps on the floor on a single blanket. This is the only holy festival which has no involvement of any pandit (priest). The devotees offer their prayers to the setting sun, and then the rising sun in celebrating its glory as the cycle of birth starts with death. It is seen as the most glorious form of Sun worship. Bihar has a number of Sun temples, flanked by a surajkund or sacred pool of the Sun, forming a popular venue for the celebration of this festival.Patna,Bhagalpur,Chapra,Munger, Haveli Kharagpur ( Banahara),Muzaffarpur,Samastipur,Dumka,Sahibganj, Dev, Gaya, Ranchi,Hazaribagh,Rampurhat are known popular for chhath puja. The main worshipers, called Parvaitin (from Sanskrit parv, meaning 'occasion' or 'festival'), are usually women. However, a large number of men also observe this festival. The parvaitin pray for the well-being of their family, and for the prosperity of their offsprings. Once a family starts performing Chhatt Puja, it is their duty to perform it every year and to pass it on to the following generations. The festival is skipped only if there happens to be a death in the family that year. The prasad offerings include sweets, Kheer, Thekua and fruit offered in small bamboo soop winnows. The food is strictly vegetarian and it is cooked without salt, onions or garlic. Emphasis is put on maintaining the purity of the food.[10] Day 1: Nahay khay (literally, bathe and eat) On the first day of Chhath Puja, the devotees take a dip, preferably in the holy river Ganges, and carry home the holy water of the river Ganges to prepare the offerings. The house and surroundings are scrupulously cleaned. The parvaitins allow themselves only one meal on this day.It is also known as " kaddu-bhat" in some region.Generally Parvaitin eat kaddu, channa dal, and arwa chawal (non-boiled rice). Traditionally the food is cooked on an earthen stove & mango wood is used as fuel. Only, preferably, new bronze or earthen utensils are used to prepare the food. If old utensils are used, non veg should never have been cooked in it. But nowadays steel utensils are also used in preparation of the food. Day 2: Kharna or Lohanda (the day before Chhath) On Panchami, the day before Chhath, the parvaitins observe a fast for the whole day, which ends in the evening a little after sunset. Just after the worship of earth, the offerings of Rasiao-kheer (rice delicacy), puris (deep-fried puffs of wheat flour) and bananas, are taken to break the fast. No sugar is used, only jaggery is used to sweeten the kheer . This is then distributed among family and friends. From this day on wards, for the next 36 hours, the parvaitin goes on a fast without water. The prasad is prepared by the parvaitin herself in the bronze or earthen ware utensil only. While eating the prasad by parvaitin if any unwanted thing like small stone etc. comes into the mouth immediately they have to stop eating without making any complain. The rice should therefore be clean. There should be no sound Day 3: Chhath Sanjhiya Arghya(ghat) (evening offerings): The day is spent preparing the prasad (offerings) at home. Those who help, also take a bath and fast till all the prasad is made. The wheat is washed and dried and even birds are not supposed to touch it. The mill is washed before grinding. On the eve of this day, the entire household accompanies the parvaitins to a riverbank, pond or a common large water body with the Thekuas fruits, etc to make the offerings (Aragh)of milk to the setting sun. It is during this phase of Chhath Puja that the devotees offer prayers to the just setting sun, while the parvaitin chants the [{Gayatri Mantra}]. Traditionally during the aragh the parvaitin should be dressed like a bride and wear a plain saree with border colored with turmeric. But nowadays printed colored sarees are also in use. The occasion is almost a carnival. Besides the parvaitin, there are friends and family, and numerous participants and onlookers, all willing to help and receive the blessings of the worshipper. Ritual rendition of regional folk songs, carried on through oral transmission from mothers and mothers-in-law to daughters and daughters-in-law, are sung on this occasion. The folk songs sung on the evening of Chhath reflect the culture, social structure, mythology and history of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. Nowadays, modern Chhath songs, largely Bollywood film remixes, have caught on, but the old tradition still goes strong with a great degree of sanctity. The three main linguistic regions of Bihar (the Maithili, the Magadhi, and the Bhojpuri), and all the various dialects associated with these, have different folk songs; but have an underlying unity in their dedicated to Chhath. The minor nuances of the Chhath rituals, such as in the Kharna ritual, vary from region to region and across families, but still there is a fundamental similarity. Kosi: On the night of day three, a colorful event of Kosi is held. Here, lighted earthen lamps are kept under a canopy of five sugarcane sticks. The five sticks signify the human body made of Panchatattva (the five great elements - earth, water, fire, air and ether). This is a symbolic ritual in Chhath Puja, performed especially in those families where marriage or childbirth has taken place recently. The lighted lamps signify the solar energy sustaining the human being. People perform this ritual at home, during late evening on day three after making the offering to the just setting sun. After that, it is done at the banks of the river on day four before making the offerings to the rising sun. Day 4: Paarun (the day after Chhath) Bihaniya Aragh(ghat) (next morning offerings): On the final day of Chhath Puja, the devotees, along with family and friends, go to the riverbank before sunrise, in order to make the offerings (Aragh) to the rising sun. The festival ends with the breaking of the fast by the parvaitin and friends visiting the houses of the devotees to receive the prashad. The chhath has so much importance that even millionaire beg for prasad at the Chhath ghat. This symbolizes that all persons are beggar in front of the almighty. Witnessing Chhath being celebrated at the crack of the dawn on a river bank is a beautiful, elating spiritual experience connecting the modern Indian to his ancient cultural roots. After aragh, Ganga maiya is worshipped. [edit]Yogic viewpoint There is also a yogic process of Chhath that may have been associated with the religious observance of Chhath puja. All the traditional rules of Chhath puja have also got some strong scientific reasons behind it & by following that maximum benefits can be gained. [edit]The Yogic Philosophy of Chhath According to yogic philosophy, the physical bodies of all the living organisms are highly sophisticated energy conducting channels. The solar bio-electricity starts flowing in the human body when it is exposed to solar radiations of specific wavelengths. Under particular physical and mental conditions, the absorption and conduction of this solar-bio-electricity increases. The processes and the rituals of the Chhath puja aim at preparing the body and the mind of the Vratti (devotee) for the process of cosmic solar energy infusion.[citation needed] The scientific process similar to Chhath was used by the Rishis of yore for carrying out their austerities without any intake of solid or liquid diet. Using a process similar to the Chhath puja, they were able to absorb the energy needed for sustenance directly from the sun, instead of taking it indirectly through food and water. The retina is a kind of photoelectric material, which emits subtle energy when exposed to light. Hence, very subtle electric energy starts flowing from the retina. This energy (photo-bio-electricity) is transmitted from the retina to the pineal gland by the optic nerves connecting the retina to the pineal gland, leading to its activation. The pineal gland is in close proximity with the pituitary and hypothalamus glands (together, three glands are called Triveni) due to which, the energy generated in this process starts impacting these glands. Consequently, the pranic activity becomes uniform, giving the Vratti good health and a calm mind. [edit]Stages of Chhath (Conscious Photoenergization Process) According to Yoga philosophy, the process of Chhath is divided into six stages of the Conscious Cosmic Solar Energy Infusion Technique (Conscious Photoenergization Process).[11] Stage 1: Fasting and the discipline of cleanliness leads to detoxification of the body and mind. This stage prepares the body and mind of the Vratti (devotee) to receive the cosmic solar energy. Stage 2: Standing in a water body with half the body (navel deep) in the water minimizes the leak of energy and helps the prana (psychic energy) to move up the sushumna (psychic channel in the spine). Stage 3: Cosmic Solar Energy enters the Vratti’s pineal, pituitary and hypothalamus glands (Triveni complex) through the retina and optic nerves. Stage 4: Activation of Triveni tri-glandular complex (pineal, pituitary and hypothalamus). Stage 5: A kind of polarization happens in the spine, which results in the Vratti’s (devotee) gross and subtle bodies getting transformed into a cosmic powerhouse. This can also lead to the awakening of the latent psychic energy popularly known as the Kundalini Shakti. Stage 6: The body of the Vratti (devotee) becomes a channel which conducts, recycles and transmits the energy into the entire universe. [edit]Benefits of Chhath process The Chhath process results in detoxification The Chhath process stresses mental discipline. The discipline of mental purity is a result of this work. By employing a number of rituals, the vrattis focus on maintaining the cleanliness of the offerings and environment. Cleanliness is the most dominant thought that prevails in the minds of all the devotees during Chhath. This has a great detoxification effect on the body and the mind as mental moods can result in biochemical changes. Now comes the physical detoxification. The fasting paves the way for detoxification at a material level. Detoxification helps in regularizing the flow of prana and makes the person more energetic. The natural immune system of the body spends much of its energy in fighting the toxins present in the body. By using the detoxification methods such as pranayam, meditation, yoga and Chhath practices, the amount of toxins present in the body can be reduced to a great extent. Thus, with reduction in the amount of toxins, the expenditure of energy also reduces and you feel more energetic. It improves the appearance of the skin. The eyesight can improve and the ageing process of the body slows down. [edit]Benefits of Chhath Puja Photo-electro-chemical effect: physical benefits The Chhath practice improves the immunity of the Vratti’s body. Antiseptic effect: Safe radiation of sunlight can help cure fungal and bacterial infections of the skin. Raktavardhak (increase in fighting power of blood): As a consequence of the practice of Chhath, the energy infused in the blood stream improves the performance of white blood cells. The solar energy has a great influence on the glands, which results in balanced secretion of hormones. Energy requirements are met by the solar energy directly. This will further detoxify the body. Photo-electro-psychic effects: mental benefits A state of creative calmness will prevail in the mind. To a great extent, all negative responses have their origin in the disturbed flow of prana. With the pranic flow regularized, the duration and frequency of occurrences of anger, jealousy, and other negative emotions will be reduced. With patient and sincere practice, the psychic powers like intuition, healing, and telepathy awaken. This depends on the concentration with which the practice is undertaken. [edit]Daily sun meditation (Chhath process) In the fast lifestyle of the present times, it may not be possible to follow the Chhath process very often. The detoxification can be undertaken through pranayam, yoga, meditation and Conscious Photoenergization Process known as Chhath Dhyan Sadhana (CDS). Chhath Dhyan Sadhana (CDS): Conscious Photoenergization Process Assume a comfortable position (standing or sitting) with back and spine straight. With eyes closed, face the Sun. Inhale completely, as slowly as possible. Do not strain in making the breathing slow. Maintain your comfort level. As you breath in, visualize (feelingly experience) the cosmic solar energy entering through your eyes and moving to the pineal gland through optic nerves and charging the pineal–pituitary–hypothalamus complex. Now, as you exhale, visualize the cosmic solar energy flowing down the pineal gland and spreading throughout your body with a revitalizing effect. Thus, the process starts with inhalation and ends in exhalation. This constitutes one round. It is suggested to start with five rounds (two minutes), and increase it time permitting. On completion of the practice, thank the Sun for bestowing upon you the life giving solar energy. Thereafter, sit quietly for a minute, observing the good things in the environment around. CDS should be practiced within one-hour window after sunrise or within one-hour window before sunset. Any person of any age can practice CDS. If you wish to practice CDS at any time other than sunrise or sunset, do not practice it in front of Sun. You can however, practice CDS in a room. Even a bed-ridden person can try and consciously draw in the solar energy while lying on the bed. With regular practice, he/she will notice an improvement in physical and mental health. For those who are not comfortable facing the sun, they can practice the technique in any room having proper ventilation. If you have time, you can also practice it twice a day. Do not hurry in increasing the number of rounds, as there are no shortcuts to success in this method. The nervous system of the body takes its own time in adapting and to be able to receive the energy. Significance of emphasis on sunrise and Sunset periods Only sunrise and sunset are the periods during which the majority of humans can safely obtain the solar energy directly from the Sun. However, there may be some exceptions. That is why, in Chhath puja, there is a tradition of offering Arghya to the Sun in late evening and in early morning. During these phases (one hour window after sunrise and before sunset), the ultraviolet radiation levels remain in safe limits. [edit]

      controls of flood

Some methods of flood control have been practiced since ancient times.[1] These methods include planting vegetation to retain extra water, terracing hillsides to slow flow downhill, and the construction of floodways (man-made channels to divert floodwater).[1] Other techniques include the construction of levees, lakes, dams, reservoirs[1] or retention ponds to hold extra water during times of flooding. [edit]Methods of control [edit]Dams Main article: dam Many dams and their associated reservoirs are designed completely or partially to aid in flood protection and control. Many large dams have flood-control reservations in which the level of a reservoir must be kept below a certain elevation before the onset of the rainy/summer melt season so as to allow a certain amount of space in which floodwaters can fill. The term dry dam refers to a dam that serves purely for flood control without any conservation storage (e.g. Mount Morris Dam, Seven Oaks Dam). [edit]Self-closing flood barrier The self-closing flood barrier (SCFB), is a flood defence system to protect people and property from inland waterway floods caused by heavy rainfall, gales or rapid melting snow.[citation needed] The SCFB can be built to protect residential properties and whole communities, as well as industrial or other strategic areas. The barrier system is constantly ready to deploy in a flood situation, it can be installed in any length and uses the rising flood water to deploy. Barrier systems have already been built and installed in The Netherlands, Thailand, Belgium, Italy, Ireland, UK, Vietnam, Australia and the U.S.A. Millions of documents at the National Archives building in Washington DC are protected by two SCFBs.[citation needed] [edit]River defences In many countries, rivers are prone to floods and are often carefully managed. Defences such as levees, bunds, reservoirs, and weirs are used to prevent rivers from bursting their banks. When these defences fail, emergency measures such as sandbags or portable inflatable tubes are used. A weir, also known as a lowhead dam, is most often used to create millponds, but on the Humber River in Toronto, a weir was built near Raymore Drive to prevent a recurrence of the flood damage caused by Hurricane Hazel in 1954. [edit]Coastal defences Coastal flooding has been addressed in Europe and the Americas with coastal defences, such as sea walls, beach nourishment, and barrier islands. Tide gates are used in conjunction with dykes and culverts. They can be placed at the mouth of streams or small rivers, where an estuary begins or where tributary streams, or drainage ditches connect to sloughs. Tide gates close during incoming tides to prevent tidal waters from moving upland, and open during outgoing tides to allow waters to drain out via the culvert and into the estuary side of the dike. The opening and closing of the gates is driven by a difference in water level on either side of the gate.[2] [edit]Flood control by continent [edit]Americas An elaborate system of floodway defenses can be found in the Canadian province of Manitoba. The Red River flows northward from the United States, passing through the city of Winnipeg (where it meets the Assiniboine River) and into Lake Winnipeg. As is the case with all north-flowing rivers in the temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere, snowmelt in southern sections may cause river levels to rise before northern sections have had a chance to completely thaw. This can lead to devastating flooding, as occurred in Winnipeg during the spring of 1950. To protect the city from future floods, the Manitoba government undertook the construction of a massive system of diversions, dikes, and floodways (including the Red River Floodway and the Portage Diversion). The system kept Winnipeg safe during the 1997 flood which devastated many communities upriver from Winnipeg, including Grand Forks, North Dakota and Ste. Agathe, Manitoba. In the U.S., the New Orleans Metropolitan Area, 35% of which sits below sea level, is protected by hundreds of miles of levees and flood gates. This system failed catastrophically, with numerous breaks, during Hurricane Katrina in the city proper and in eastern sections of the Metro Area, resulting in the inundation of approximately 50% of the Metropolitan area, ranging from a few inches to twenty feet in coastal communities. The Morganza Spillway provides a method of diverting water from the Mississippi river when a river flood threatens New Orleans, Baton Rouge and other major cities on the lower Mississippi. It is the largest of a system of spillways and floodways along the Mississippi. Completed in 1954, the spillway has been opened twice, in 1973 and in 2011. In an act of successful flood prevention, the Federal Government of the United States offered to buy out flood-prone properties in the United States in order to prevent repeated disasters after the 1993 flood across the Midwest. Several communities accepted and the government, in partnership with the state, bought 25,000 properties which they converted into wetlands. These wetlands act as a sponge in storms and in 1995, when the floods returned, the government did not have to expend resources in those areas.[3] [edit]Asia In China, flood diversion areas are rural areas that are deliberately flooded in emergencies in order to protect cities.[4] The consequences of deforestation and changing land use on the risk and severity are prone to discussion. In assessing the impacts of Himalayan deforestation on the Ganges-Brahmaputra Lowlands, it was found that forests would not have prevented or significantly reduced flooding in the case of an extreme weather event.[5] However, more general or overview studies agree on the negative impacts deforestation has on flood safety - and the positive effects of wise land use and reforestation.[6][7] [edit]Europe Flood blocking the road in Jerusalem London is protected from flooding by a huge mechanical barrier across the River Thames, which is raised when the water level reaches a certain point (see: Thames Barrier). Venice has a similar arrangement, although it is already unable to cope with very high tides. The defenses of both London and Venice will be rendered inadequate if sea levels continue to rise. The largest and most elaborate flood defenses can be found in the Netherlands, where they are referred to as Delta Works with the Oosterschelde dam as its crowning achievement. These works were built in response to the North Sea flood of 1953, in the southwestern part of the Netherlands. The Dutch had already built one of the world's largest dams in the north of the country. The Afsluitdijk closing occurred in 1932. The Saint Petersburg Flood Prevention Facility Complex was completed in 2008, in Russia, to protect Saint Petersburg from storm surges. It also has a main traffic function, as it completes a ring road around Saint Petersburg. Eleven dams extend for 25.4 kilometres (15.8 mi) and stand 8 metres (26 ft) above water level. [edit]Flood clean-up safety Clean-up activities following floods often pose hazards to workers and volunteers involved in the effort. Potential dangers include electrical hazards, carbon monoxide exposure, musculoskeletal hazards, heat or cold stress, motor vehicle-related dangers, fire, drowning, and exposure to hazardous materials.[8] Because flooded disaster sites are unstable, clean-up workers might encounter sharp jagged debris, biological hazards in the flood water, exposed electrical lines, blood or other body fluids, and animal and human remains. In planning for and reacting to flood disasters, managers provide workers with hard hats, goggles, heavy work gloves, life jackets, and watertight boots with steel toes and insoles.[9] [edit]Future Europe is at the forefront of the flood control technology, with low-lying countries such as the Netherlands and Belgium developing techniques that can serve as examples to other countries facing similar problems.[10] After Hurricane Katrina, the US state of Louisiana sent politicians to the Netherlands to take a tour of the complex and highly developed flood control system in place in the Netherlands.[11] With a BBC article quoting experts as saying 70% more people will live in delta cities by 2050, the number of people impacted by a rise in sea level will greatly increase.[12] The Netherlands has one of the best flood control systems in the world and new ways to deal with water are constantly being developed and tested, such as the underground storage of water, storing water in reservoirs in large parking garages or on playgrounds,[12][13] Rotterdam started a project to construct a floating housing development of 120 acres (0.49 km2) to deal with rising sea levels.[14] Several approaches, from high-tech sensors detecting imminent levee failure to movable semi-circular structures closing an entire river, are being developed or used around the world. Regular maintenance of hydraulic structures, however, is another crucial part of flood control.[15] [edit]Benefits of flooding There are many disruptive effects of flooding on human settlements and economic activities. However, flooding can bring benefits, such as making soil more fertile and providing nutrients in which it is deficient. Periodic flooding was essential to the well-being of ancient communities along the Tigris-Euphrates Rivers, the Nile River, the Indus River, the Ganges and the Yellow River, among others. The viability for hydrologically based renewable sources of energy is higher in flood-prone regions.

                KALIDASH

One of the greatest poets and dramatists in Sanskrit. His chronicle of the kings of the Raghu clan ('Raghuvamsha'), the great play 'Shakuntala' and other works depict, through many great characters, the highest ideals of life as seen by the ancient people of Bharat. Kalidas There are hundreds of languages in the world. However, great and classical literature which people in all countries need to read is found only in a few languages. One such great language is Sanskrit. It is one of the oldest languages. It is the mother of several Indianlanguages such as Hindi, Bengali and Marathi in the North. Kannada, Telugu and other languages in the South have also been nourished by it. It needs the genius of poets who create literary epics and great thinkers for a language to achieve world-renown. Sanskrit is eminently lucky in this respect. Sages' celebration of the wonders of nature, the sky, the stars, mountains and rivers, the sun, the moon, the clouds, fire ('Agni') and their devout offering of prayers to the Universal Power are all found in the Vedic classics which/are in Sanskrit. Puranas and historical epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharat vividly describe the battle between the good and the evil. They also portray the virtues like devotion to truth, a sense of sacrifice, heroism, cultured living, etc. In Sanskrit there are also beautiful stories of birds and animals like Panchatantra; stories extolling good and basic qualities of wisdom and intelligence. Sanskrit can also justly boast of a rich treasure house of plays, poems and many scientific and philosophical treatises. A poet who has made a distinct and glorious contribution to this sumptuous Sanskrit literature is Kalidas. He has pictured in his works the beauty in life and pondered upon how we can give pleasure to others by generous and graceful behavior. His portrayals are vivid and heart- warming; his word power is unique. In a few words he is capable of bringing out the entire meaning intended. His writings touchingly show up a noble, meaningful mode of life for the people to pursue. His works are an intellectual treat to thinkers and common readers alike. A Great Scholar and Poet Who is this Kalidas ? When did he live and where in India was he residing? Much discussion has taken place for a long time now about his life and times. Not many queries on this score have elicited definite answers. Several legends have sprouted around him. According to one such popular legend, Kalidas wasn't always so wise and learned. In fact, there was a time he was considered to be one of the stupidest people in the kingdom! One sunny day, Kalidas was sitting on a branch of a tree, trying to saw it off. But the dimwitted man was sitting on the wrong end of the branch, so when he finally sawed through the branch, down he tumbled! This act of sheer stupidity was observed by some shrewd pundits minister passing by. Now these pundits wanted to play a trick on the arrogant princess, to teach her a lesson. She was determined to marry someone who would defeat her in a debate about the scriptures. The princess had heaped considerable abuse on them over a period of time, and they were determined to extract their revenge. So, when they chanced upon Kalidas, they decided to present him to the queen as a suitable match for her. In order to conceal his stupidity, the pundits asked Kalidas to pretend that he was a great sage, who was observing a vow of silence. Kalidas readily agreed, and they presented him to the queen, saying that Kalidas would only communicate by way of gestures. When the queen asked Kalidas a few questions to test his intelligence, Kalidas gesticulated wildly and the astute pundits 'interpreted' these gestures as extremely witty answers and retorts. The princess was suitably impressed, and the couple was married without much delay. Kalidas's stupidity could be concealed for only so long, and the night of the wedding Kalidas blurted out something inane. The princess realized that she had married a prize fool. Furious, she threw him out of her palace, and her life. The dejected Kalidas wandered around, till he came to the bank of the river. He contemplated taking his life when he suddenly saw some women washing clothes on the edge of the river bank. He observed that the stones which the women were pounding with clothes, were smooth and rounded, while the other stones were rough and ragged. This observation hit him like a thunderbolt, and it dawned upon him that if stones could be worn through and change their shape by being pounded upon by clothes, then why couldn't his thick brains change, by being pounded upon by knowledge! Kalidas thus grew determined to become the wisest and most learned man in the country, and to achieve this end he started indulging in intellectual pastimes, reading, meditating and praying to his goddess Kali to grant him divine knowledge. His wish was fulfilled. This is one of the most popular legends about Kalidas. There are several other stories but they lack authenticity. It appears Kalidas was at the court of emperor Vikramaditya. The place and time of this king are also not definite. But it can be said with some certainty that Kalidas lived before the 6th century A.D., i.e., about 1400 years ago. But when exactly he lived before the 6th century is not firmly established. Though a deep affection for the city of Ujjain is discernible in his works, it cannot be said with certainty that he lived there. But we can assume that, wherever he may have been born, he had lived at Ujjain. Kalidas, however, had good knowledge of the whole of Bharat. In his poem 'Meghaduta', his descriptions of mountains and rivers and cities and villages stretching from Ramagiri in Central India up to Alakanagari in the Himalayas are very beautiful. In another epic poem 'Raghuvamsha', Kalidas, while portraying the conquests of emperor Raghu, describes the places and peoples, their modes of living, food-habits and trades and professions, rivers and mountains in almost the whole country -- Assam, Bengal and Utkal in the East; Pandya and Kerala in the South and Sind, Gandhara and other places in the North-west. Reading these pen-pictures, one cannot help but conclude that the poet must have had a personal knowledge of these areas. In short, he must have traveled widely across the length and breadth of the land, seen those places, talked to the people and studied their modes of living. Kalidas possessed that distinct intellect which makes one a great poet. He was a scholar and his works display his poetic genius as well as scholarship. Also they are marked by a belief of what is good in life and people's noble goals of life. He could describe the rich and wealthy life of a royal palace and the serene, simple and peaceful life at a hermitage with equal understanding. He could, likewise, describe the joys of the marital life of a man and his spouse as well as their pangs of separation. He creates scenes of a serious and thoughtful nature as also hilarious scenes of light comedy. In his works is found an excellent combination of art-consciousness, unmatched wordpower and an unparalleled capacity for vivid portrayals. The Great works by Kalidas Kalidas wrote seven works. 'Kumarasambhava' and 'Raghuvamsha' are his two epic poems. 'Malavikagnimitra', 'Vikramorvashiya' and 'Abhijnana Shakuntala' are his celebrated plays. 'Meghaduta' and 'Ritusamhara' are also poetical works of great distinction. Kumarasambhava One of Kalidas's greatest works is 'Kumarasambhava'. Critics maintain that Kalidas wrote only the first eight chapters of the epic poem. The work describes the marriage of Lord Shiva and his consort Parvati. It begins with a fine description of that giant among mountains, the Himalaya. Kalidas's poem gives us a vivid picture of what a good, meaningful life a man could and should lead as propounded by our learned ancestors. Raghuvamsha Kalidas's second epic is 'Raghuvamsha'. There are nineteen chapters ('sargas') in this poem. The epic describes the history of the kings Dileepa, Raghu, Aja, Dasharatha, Sri Rama, Lava and Kusha. It also deals briefly with the twenty kings from Nala up to Agnivarna.In thebeginning, the poet extols the fine qualities of the kings of Raghu dynasty. 'Raghuvamsha' depicts our ancient, historical culture and tradition. Our ancestors had discussed in detail about such matters as to who could be a good ruler, who is a man of 'tapas' (penance), how one should lead a good, purposeful life and the like. The poet has portrayed diverse characters like Vashishta, Dileepa, Raghu, Aja and others. Agnivarna is an example of a king who could be termed as 'depraved'. Malavikagnimitra 'Malavikagnimitra' is Kalidas's first play. The author shows his humility and is uncertain whether people would accepts play. He pleads 'Puranamityeva Na sadhu sarvam,Na chapikavyamnavamityavadyam' (Everything old is not good, nor is every thing knew badly). There may be some thing, which may not be of much use in the old, and the new may also be good. The theme of the play is the love-story of Agnimitra and Malavika. Vikramor-vashiya Kalidas's second play 'Vikramor -vashiya' is about the loves and tribulations of king Pururava and the heavenly damsel 'Urvashi'. Abhijnana Shakuntala 'Abhijnana Shakuntala' is Kalidas's greatest creation. This literary masterpiece has been translated into several languages around the world. The story of Shakuntala appears in the 'Adiparva' chapter of the epic Mahabharat. Meghaduta 'Meghaduta' is a beautiful love-lyric. A 'Yaksha', who is forced to be separated from his mistress for a year, sends her a message. The lady is residing at Alakanagari. 'Go and tell her that I told so', instructs the Yaksha to the cloud who becomes his messenger. The very fact that a cloud ('Megha') is chosen to be a messenger of love is something unique. The poet fascinatingly describes the travels of the cloud from Ramagiri to Alakanagari. The rivers, hills and mountains, cities and towns, vast fields, farmers' daughters as well as girls in the cities, the birds and the bees -- are all described by the poet vividly. It is a total picture of a beautiful world. His descriptions of Alakanagari, the Yaksha's house and the garden around, theYaksha's wife playing the Veena and her grace and beauty are captivating. Ritusamhara 'Ritusamhara' is a somewhat small-scale poetical creation depicting the six seasons. However, it is equally appealing. The poet here sees beauty in everything. Each different facet of nature he sees in each of the seasons fascinates him; it is a romantic sight. Summary of the life and work of Kalidas In sum, it gives us great aesthetic pleasure to read Kalidas's works. His descriptions enthrall us. With him we are in the company-cultured a highly civilized, cultured personality. It is like a flower which, in bloom, spreads its fragrance all around. And a man's mature, ripened mind and intellect brings pleasure to those around him. In Kalidas's creations, we enter the world of people pure in mind and body and who are graceful. We learn here the manner in which man's nature can reach high, moral levels. It pleases us deeply to come into contact with characters like Parvati, Dileepa, Raghu, Aja, Shakuntala, Dushyanta and Kanva. It is for this wonderful experience that we as well as people in other countries read Kalidas. Source : 1) Free India 2) India Parenting

             DEEPAVALI

Deepavali (also: Depawali, Dipavali, Dewali, Diwali, Divali, Dipotsavi, Dipapratipad ) marks the beginning of the Hindu New Year according to the Lunar Calendar. It literally translated means 'Row of Lights' (from Sanskrit: dipa = lamp / awali = row, line). It celebrates the victory of Goodness over Evil and Light over Darkness - it ushers in the new year. Especially for this event people are cleaning their houses and wear new clothes. Diwali is a 5 day festival as Dhanteras, Choti Diwali, Badi (Main) Diwali, Padwa and Bhaiduj. There are many different names for the days of Diwali in different regions of India (South & North India, East & West India) and in the different languages spoken in that regions (i.e. Hindi, Urdu, Telugu, Tamil, Gujarati, Bengali). During Deepavali people pray to Lakshmi, Goddess of wealth, light, prosperity and wisdom, but also to Ganesha, the 'Remover of Obstacles' and the 'Lord of Beginnings'. Deepavali celebrations take place in many countries in the world. On the first day of the Diwali festival people pray and having a special breakfast made of many different foods. The Hindu Goddess Lakshmi's statue and images are carried through the streets in processions. There are various legends and stories associated with the Diwali festival. The story of Bali, Emergence of Laxmi, Krishna Narakasur Fight, Victory of Rama over Ravana and many more. Dipa Lights (also called Diwali Diyas, Kandils, Ghee Lamps or Parvati Ganesha Lamps) - made of clay, fueled with Oil from Coconuts, Mustard or Ghee (clarified butter), the wick made of cotton wool - are placed outside of houses, on floors and doorways. During Diwali festival, doorways are hung with torans of mango leaves and marigolds. Deepavali Melas are being enjoyed by Hindus, Sikhs, Jains & Buddhists alike. On the day of Deepavali people exchange gifts, bursting firecrackers, lighting fireworks, colourful sparklers & bonfires and having festive meals. Diwali Melas (fairs) are held throughout India and the celebrations abroad. The Indian Festival of Lights takes place after the monsoon season has finished and the weather is nice and pleasant again. Wishing Happy Diwali to everyone! Deepavali Valthukkal!! Shubh Diwali!!

                     flood
A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land.[1] The European Union (EU) Floods Directive defines a flood as a covering by water of land not normally covered by water.[2] In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Flooding may result from the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, which overflows or breaks levees, with the result that some of the water escapes its usual boundaries,[3] or may be due to accumulation of rainwater on saturated ground in an areal flood. While the size of a lake or other body of water will vary with seasonal changes in precipitation and snow melt, it is not a significant flood unless such escapes of water endanger land areas used by man like a village, city or other inhabited area. Floods can also occur in rivers, when flow exceeds the capacity of the river channel, particularly at bends or meanders. Floods often cause damage to homes and businesses if they are placed in natural flood plains of rivers. While flood damage can be virtually eliminated by moving away from rivers and other bodies of water, since time out of mind, people have lived and worked by the water to seek sustenance and capitalize on the gains of cheap and easy travel and commerce by being near water. That humans continue to inhabit areas threatened by flood damage is evidence that the perceived value of living near the water exceeds the cost of repeated periodic flooding. The word "flood" comes from the Old English flod, a word common to Germanic languages (compare German Flut, Dutch vloed from the same root as is seen in flow, float; also compare with Latin fluctus, flumen). Deluge myths are mythical stories of a great flood sent by a deity or deities to destroy civilization as an act of divine retribution, and are featured in the mythology of many cultures. Contents [hide] • 1 Principal types and causes o 1.1 Areal o 1.2 Riverine o 1.3 Estuarine o 1.4 Coastal o 1.5 Catastrophic o 1.6 Human-induced • 2 Effects o 2.1 Primary effects o 2.2 Secondary effects o 2.3 Tertiary and long-term effects • 3 Control o 3.1 Europe o 3.2 North America o 3.3 Asia o 3.4 Africa o 3.5 Clean-up safety • 4 Benefits • 5 Computer modelling • 6 Deadliest floods • 7 See also • 8 References • 9 Bibliography • 10 External links [edit]Principal types and causes [edit]Areal  Floods often happen over flat or low-lying areas when the ground is saturated and water either cannot run off, or cannot run off quickly enough to stop accumulating. This may be later followed by a river flood as water moves away from the areal floodplain into local rivers and streams.  Floods can occur if water accumulates across an impermeable surface (e.g. from rainfall) and cannot rapidly dissipate (i.e. gentle orientation or low evaporation).  A series of storms moving over the same area can cause areal flash flooding.  A muddy flood is produced by an accumulation of runoff generated on cropland. Sediments are then detached by runoff and carried as suspended matter or bed load. Muddy runoff is more likely detected when it reaches inhabited areas. Muddy floods are therefore a hill slope process, and confusion with mudflows produced by mass movements should be avoided. [edit]Riverine  Slow kinds: Runoff from sustained rainfall or rapid snow melt exceeding the capacity of a river's channel. Causes include heavy rains from monsoons, hurricanes and tropical depressions, foreign winds and warm rain affecting snow pack. Unexpected drainage obstructions such as landslides, ice, or debris can cause slow flooding upstream of the obstruction.  Fast kinds: include river flash floods resulting from convective precipitation (intensethunderstorms) or sudden release from an upstream impoundment created behind a dam,landslide, or glacier.  Dam-building beavers can flood low-lying urban and rural areas, often causing significant damage. [edit]Estuarine  Commonly caused by a combination of sea tidal surges caused by storm-force winds and high river stages due to heavy rain. [edit]Coastal  Caused by severe sea storms, or as a result of another hazard (e.g. tsunami or hurricane). A storm surge, from either a tropical cyclone or an extratropical cyclone, falls within this category. [edit]Catastrophic  Caused by a significant and unexpected event e.g. dam breakage, or as a result of another hazard (e.g. earthquake or volcanic eruption). See outburst flood. [edit]Human-induced  Accidental damage by workmen to tunnels or pipes. [edit]Effects [edit]Primary effects  Physical damage – damage to structures, including bridges, buildings, sewerage systems, roadways, and canals. [edit]Secondary effects  Water supplies – Contamination of water. Clean drinking water will become scarce.  Diseases – Unhygienic conditions. Spread of water-borne diseases.  Crops and food supplies – Shortage of food crops can be caused due to loss of entire harvest.[4] However, lowlands near rivers depend upon river silt deposited by floods in order to add nutrients to the local soil.  Trees – Non-tolerant species can die from suffocation.[5]  Transport – Transport links destroyed, so hard to get emergency aid to those who need it. [edit]Tertiary and long-term effects  Economic – economic hardship due to temporary decline in tourism, rebuilding costs, food shortage leading to price increase, etc.  Psychological – flooding can be highly traumatic for individuals, in particular where deaths, serious injuries and loss of property occurs.

                 ALDEHYDE
An aldehyde ( /ˈældɨhaɪd/) is an organic compound containing a formyl group. This functional group, with the structure R-CHO, consists of a carbonyl center (a carbon double bonded to oxygen) bonded to hydrogen and an R group,[1] which is any generic alkyl or side chain. The group without R is called the aldehyde group or formyl group. Aldehydes differ from ketones in that the carbonyl is placed at the end of a carbon skeleton rather than between two carbon atoms. Aldehydes are common in organic chemistry. Many fragrances are aldehydes. Contents [show] [edit]Structure and bonding Aldehydes feature an sp2-hybridized, planar carbon center that is connected by a double bond to oxygen and a single bond to hydrogen. The C-H bond is not acidic. Because of resonance stabilization of the conjugate base, an α-hydrogen in an aldehyde (not shown in the picture above) is far more acidic, with a pKa near 17, than a C-H bond in a typical alkane (pKa about 50).[2] This acidification is attributed to (i) the electron-withdrawing quality of the formyl center and (ii) the fact that the conjugate base, an enolate anion, delocalizes its negative charge. Related to (i), the aldehyde group is somewhat polar. Aldehydes (except those without an alpha carbon, or without protons on the alpha carbon, such as formaldehyde and benzaldehyde) can exist in either the keto or the enol tautomer. Keto-enol tautomerism is catalyzed by either acid or base. Usually the enol is the minority tautomer, but it is more reactive. [edit]Nomenclature [edit]IUPAC names for aldehydes The common names for aldehydes do not strictly follow official guidelines, such as those recommended by IUPAC but these rules are useful. IUPAC prescribes the following nomenclature for aldehydes:[3][4][5] Acyclic aliphatic aldehydes are named as derivatives of the longest carbon chain containing the aldehyde group. Thus, HCHO is named as a derivative of methane, and CH3CH2CH2CHO is named as a derivative of butane. The name is formed by changing the suffix -e of the parent alkane to -al, so that HCHO is named methanal, and CH3CH2CH2CHO is named butanal. In other cases, such as when a -CHO group is attached to a ring, the suffix -carbaldehyde may be used. Thus, C6H11CHO is known as cyclohexanecarbaldehyde. If the presence of another functional group demands the use of a suffix, the aldehyde group is named with the prefix formyl-. This prefix is preferred to methanoyl-. If the compound is a natural product or a carboxylic acid, the prefix oxo- may be used to indicate which carbon atom is part of the aldehyde group; for example, CHOCH2COOH is named 3-oxopropanoic acid. If replacing the aldehyde group with a carboxyl group (-COOH) would yield a carboxylic acid with a trivial name, the aldehyde may be named by replacing the suffix -ic acid or -oic acid in this trivial name by -aldehyde. [edit]Etymology Formic acid The word aldehyde was coined by Justus von Liebig as a contraction of the Latin alcohol dehydrogenatus (dehydrogenated alcohol).[6] In the past, aldehydes were sometimes named after the corresponding alcohols, for example, vinous aldehyde for acetaldehyde. (Vinous is from Latin vinum = wine (the traditional source of ethanol), cognate with vinyl.) The term formyl group is derived from the Latin and/or Italian word formica = ant. This word can be recognized in the simplest aldehyde, formaldehyde (methanal), and in the simplest carboxylic acid, formic acid (methanoic acid, an acid, but also an aldehyde). [edit]Physical properties and characterization Aldehydes have properties that are diverse and that depend on the remainder of the molecule. Smaller aldehydes are more soluble in water, formaldehyde and acetaldehyde completely so. The volatile aldehydes have pungent odors. Aldehydes degrade in air via the process of autoxidation. The two aldehydes of greatest importance in industry, formaldehyde and acetaldehyde, have complicated behavior because of their tendency to oligomerize or polymerize. They also tend to hydrate, forming the geminal diol. The oligomers/polymers and the hydrates exist in equilibrium with the parent aldehyde. Aldehydes are readily identified by spectroscopic methods. Using IR spectroscopy, they display a strong νCO band near 1700 cm−1. In their 1H NMR spectra, the formyl hydrogen center absorbs near δ9, which is a distinctive part of the spectrum. This signal shows the characteristic coupling to any protons on the alpha carbon. [edit]Applications and occurrence Important aldehydes and related compounds. The aldehyde group (or formyl group) is colored red. From the left: (1) formaldehyde and (2) its trimer 1,3,5-trioxane, (3) acetaldehyde and (4) its enol vinyl alcohol, (5) glucose (pyranose form as α-D-glucopyranose), (6) the flavorant cinnamaldehyde, (7) the visual pigment retinal, and (8) the vitamin pyridoxal. [edit]Naturally occurring aldehydes Traces of many aldehydes are found in essential oils and often contribute to their favorable odors, e.g. cinnamaldehyde, cilantro, and vanillin. Possibly because of the high reactivity of the formyl group, aldehydes are not common in several of the natural building blocks: amino acids, nucleic acids, lipids. Most sugars, however, are derivatives of aldehydes. These "aldoses" exist as hemiacetals, a sort of masked form of the parent aldehyde. For example, in aqueous solution only a tiny fraction of glucose exists as the aldehyde. [edit]Synthesis There are several methods for preparing aldehydes,[7] but the dominant technology is hydroformylation.[8] Illustrative is the generation of butyraldehyde by hydroformylation of propene: H2 + CO + CH3CH=CH2 → CH3CH2CH2CHO [edit]Oxidative routes Aldehydes are commonly generated by alcohol oxidation. In industry, formaldehyde is produced on a large scale by oxidation of methanol.[9] Oxygen is the reagent of choice, being "green" and cheap. In the laboratory, more specialized oxidizing agents are used, but chromium(VI) reagents are popular. Oxidation can be achieved by heating the alcohol with an acidified solution of potassium dichromate. In this case, excess dichromate will further oxidize the aldehyde to a carboxylic acid, so either the aldehyde is distilled out as it forms (if volatile) or milder reagents such as PCC are used.[10] [O] + CH3(CH2)9OH → CH3(CH2)8CHO + H2O Oxidation of primary alcohols to form aldehydes and can be achieved under milder, chromium-free conditions by employing methods or reagents such as IBX acid, Dess-Martin periodinane, Swern oxidation, TEMPO, or the Oppenauer oxidation. Another oxidation route significant in industry is the Wacker process, whereby ethylene is oxidized to acetaldehyde in the presence of copper and palladium catalysts (acetaldehyde is also produced on a large scale by the hydration of acetylene). [edit]Specialty methods Reaction name Substrate Comment Ozonolysis alkene ozonolysis of non-fully-substituted alkenes yield aldehydes upon reductive work-up. Organic reduction ester Reduction of an ester with diisobutylaluminium hydride (DIBAL-H) or sodium aluminium hydride Rosenmund reaction acid chloride or using lithium tri-t-butoxyaluminium hydride (LiAlH(OtBu)3). Wittig reaction ketone reagent methoxymethylenetriphenylphosphine in a modified Wittig reaction. Formylation reactions nucleophilic arenes various reactions for example the Vilsmeier-Haack reaction Nef reaction Nitro compound Zincke reaction pyridines Zincke aldehydes form in a variation Stephen aldehyde synthesis nitriles reagents tin(II) chloride and hydrochloric acid. Meyers synthesis oxazine oxazine hydrolysis McFadyen-Stevens reaction hydrazide is a base-catalyzed thermal decomposition of acylsulfonylhydrazides [edit]Common reactions Aldehydes are highly reactive and participate in many reactions.[7]" From the industrial perspective, important reactions are condensations, e.g. to prepare plasticizers and polyols, and reduction to produce alcohols, especially "oxo-alcohols." From the biological perspective, the key reactions involve addition of nucleophiles to the formyl carbon in the formation of imines (oxidative deamination) and hemiacetals (structures of aldose sugars).[7] [edit]Reduction Main article: Aldehyde reduction The formyl group can be readily reduced to a primary alcohol (-CH2OH). Typically this conversion is accomplished by catalytic hydrogenation either directly or by transfer hydrogenation. Stoichiometric reductions are also popular, as can be effected with sodium borohydride. [edit]Oxidation The formyl group readily oxidizes to the corresponding carboxylic acid (-COOH). The preferred oxidant in industry is oxygen or air. In the laboratory, popular oxidizing agents include potassium permanganate, nitric acid, chromium(VI) oxide, and chromic acid. The combination of manganese dioxide, cyanide, acetic acid and methanol will convert the aldehyde to a methyl ester.[11] Another oxidation reaction is the basis of the silver mirror test. In this test, an aldehyde is treated with Tollens' reagent, which is prepared by adding a drop of sodium hydroxide solution into silver nitrate solution to give a precipitate of silver(I) oxide, and then adding just enough dilute ammonia solution to redissolve the precipitate in aqueous ammonia to produce [Ag(NH3)2]+ complex. This reagent will convert aldehydes to carboxylic acids without attacking carbon-carbon double-bonds. The name silver mirror test arises because this reaction will produce a precipitate of silver whose presence can be used to test for the presence of an aldehyde. A further oxidation reaction involves Fehling's reagent as a test. The Cu2+ complex ions are reduced to a red brick coloured Cu2O precipitate. If the aldehyde cannot form an enolate (e.g., benzaldehyde), addition of strong base induces the Cannizzaro reaction. This reaction results in disproportionation, producing a mixture of alcohol and carboxylic acid. [edit]Nucleophilic addition reactions Nucleophiles add readily to the carbonyl group. In the product, the carbonyl carbon becomes sp3 hybridized, being bonded to the nucleophile, and the oxygen center becomes protonated: RCHO + Nu- → RCH(Nu)O- RCH(Nu)O- + H+ → RCH(Nu)OH In many cases, a water molecule is removed after the addition takes place; in this case, the reaction is classed as an addition-elimination or addition-condensation reaction. There are many variations of nucleophilic addition reactions. [edit]Oxygen nucleophiles In the acetalisation reaction, under acidic or basic conditions, an alcohol adds to the carbonyl group and a proton is transferred to form a hemiacetal. Under acidic conditions, the hemiacetal and the alcohol can further react to form an acetal and water. Simple hemiacetals are usually unstable, although cyclic ones such as glucose can be stable. Acetals are stable, but revert to the aldehyde in the presence of acid. Aldehydes can react with water to form hydrates, R-C(H)(OH)(OH). These diols are stable when strong electron withdrawing groups are present, as in chloral hydrate. The mechanism of formation is identical to hemiacetal formation. [edit]Nitrogen nucleophiles In alkylimino-de-oxo-bisubstitution, a primary or secondary amine adds to the carbonyl group and a proton is transferred from the nitrogen to the oxygen atom to create a carbinolamine. In the case of a primary amine, a water molecule can be eliminated from the carbinolamine to yield an imine. This reaction is catalyzed by acid. Hydroxylamine (NH2OH) can also add to the carbonyl group. After the elimination of water, this will result in an oxime. An ammonia derivative of the form H2NNR2 such as hydrazine (H2NNH2) or 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine can also be the nucleophile and after the elimination of water, resulting in the formation of a hydrazone, which are usually orange crystalline solids. This reaction forms the basis of a test for aldehydes and ketones.[12] [edit]Carbon nucleophiles The cyano group in HCN can add to the carbonyl group to form cyanohydrins, R-C(H)(OH)(CN). In this reaction the CN− ion is the nucleophile which attacks the partially positive carbon atom of the carbonyl group. The mechanism involves a pair of electrons from the carbonyl group double bond transferring to the oxygen atom, leaving it single bonded to carbon and giving the oxygen atom a negative charge. This intermediate ion rapidly reacts with H+, such as from the HCN molecule, to form the alcohol group of the cyanohydrin. In the Grignard reaction, a Grignard reagent adds to the group, eventually yielding an alcohol with a substituted group from the Grignard reagent. Related reactions are the Barbier reaction and the Nozaki-Hiyama-Kishi reaction. In organostannane addition tin replaces magnesium. In the aldol reaction, the metal enolates of ketones, esters, amides, and carboxylic acids will add to aldehydes to form β-hydroxycarbonyl compounds (aldols). Acid or base-catalyzed dehydration will then lead to α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds. The combination of these two steps is known as the aldol condensation. The Prins reaction occurs when a nucleophilic alkene or alkyne reacts with an aldehyde as electrophile. The product of the Prins reaction varies with reaction conditions and substrates employed. [edit]Bisulphite reaction Aldehydes characteristically form "addition compounds" with sodium bisulphite: RCHO + HSO3- → RCH(OH)(SO3)- This reaction is used as a test for aldehydes.[12] [edit]More complex reactions Reaction name Product Comment Wolff-Kishner reduction alkane If an aldehyde is converted to a simple hydrazone (RCH=NHNH2) and this is heated with a base such as KOH, the terminal carbon is fully reduced to a methyl group. The Wolff-Kishner reaction may be performed as a one-pot reaction, giving the overall conversion RCH=O → RCH3. Pinacol coupling reaction diol with reducing agents such as magnesium Wittig reaction alkene reagent an ylide Takai reaction alkene diorganochromium reagent Corey-Fuchs reactions alkyne phosphine-dibromomethylene reagent Ohira–Bestmann reaction alkyne reagent dimethyl (diazomethyl)phosphonate Johnson-Corey-Chaykovsky reaction epoxide reagent a sulfonium ylide Oxo Diels Alder reaction pyran Aldehydes can, typically in the presence of suitable catalysts, serve as partners in cycloaddition reactions. The aldehyde serves as the dienophile component, giving a pyran or related compound. Hydroacylation ketone In hydroacylation an aldehyde is added over an unsaturated bond to form a ketone. decarbonylation alkane catalysed by transition metals [edit]Dialdehydes A dialdehyde is an organic chemical compound with two aldehyde groups. The nomenclature of dialdehydes have the ending -dial or sometimes -dialdehyde. Short aliphatic dialdehydes are sometimes named after the diacid from which they can de derived. An example is butanedial, which is also called succinaldehyde (from succinic acid). [edit]Examples of aldehydes Methanal (formaldehyde) Ethanal (acetaldehyde) Propanal (propionaldehyde) Butanal (butyraldehyde) Benzaldehyde Cinnamaldehyde Tolualdehyde Furfural Retinaldehyde